History and conservation of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda: forest species and banana varieties as case studies

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

The history of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda is reviewed, taking forest species and bananas as examples. Palynological research into past human influences on forests is reassessed. The evidence suggests that crops were first introduced into the country at about 1,000 BCE, farming communities practicing slash and burn agriculture started to significantly influence the floristic composition of forests during the 1st millennium BCE and there was a major episode of forest reduction at about 1,000 CE related to socioeconomic change. Bananas were probably introduced in the early centuries CE. The colonial era from 1894 saw the introduction of new concepts of land ownership and the establishment of forest reserves and agricultural stations. Forests and banana diversity are currently under threat, Uganda having a very high rate of deforestation and endemic banana varieties proving susceptible to introduced pests and diseases. It is suggested that, under these circumstances, conservationists take an opportunistic approach to field engagement, making use of favourable local conditions as they arise. Partnerships should be sought with elements of society concerned with sustainable use, provision of ecosystem services and cultural survival to widen the social base of plant conservation. International organisations involved in conservation of plant genetic resources and wild plant species should collaborate with one another to develop the conceptual basis of plant conservation, to make it more relevant to countries like Uganda.

关键词: Ecosystem-based plant conservation, Pollen diagrams, Indigenous knowledge, Resource governance

Abstract:

Key words: Ecosystem-based plant conservation, Pollen diagrams, Indigenous knowledge, Resource governance

Alan C. Hamilton1*, Deborah Karamura2, Esezah Kakudidi3. History and conservation of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda: forest species and banana varieties as case studies[J]. Plant Diversity, 2016, 38(01): 26-52.

Alan C. Hamilton*, Deborah Karamura, Esezah Kakudidi. History and conservation of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda: forest species and banana varieties as case studies[J]. Plant Diversity, 2016, 38(01): 26-52.

参考文献

Adams, J.S., McShane, T.O., 1992. The Myth of Wild Africa. New York and London: W.W. Norton

and Company.
Adia, M.M., Anywar, G., Byamukama, R., et al., 2014. Medicinal plants used in malaria treatment by

Prometra herbalists in Uganda. J. Ethnopharmacol. 155, 580-588.
Banana, A.Y., Vogt, N.D., Bahati, J., et al., 2007. Decentralized governance and ecological health:

why local institutions fail to moderate deforestation in Mpigi district of Uganda. Sci. Res. Essays. 2,

434-445.
Beuning, K.R.M., Talbot, M.R., Kelts, K., 1997. A revised 30,000year paleoclimatic and

paleohydrologic history of Lake Albert, East Africa. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,

Palaeoecology. 136, 239-279.
BGCI, 2013. Enhancing tree conservation and forest restoration in Africa: report of the regional

workshop held in Entebbe, Uganda, 30th July1st August 2013. Kew: Botanic Gardens

Conservation International.
Biggs, C.E.G., 1940. Government Experiment Stations and Farms. In: Tothill, J.D. (ed.), Agriculture in

Uganda. London: Oxford University Press. 101-111.
BirdLife International, 2008. Campaign to save Mabira Forest in Uganda from sugarcane plantation

for biofuels. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sowb/casestudy/231. Accessed 28 August 2015.
Blench, R., 2009. Bananas and plantains in Africa: reinterpreting the linguistic evidence. Ethnobot.

Res. Appl. 7, 363-380.
Blomme, G., Ploetz, R., Jones, D., et al., 2012. A historical overview of the appearance and spread of

Musa pests and pathogens on the African continent: highlighting the importance of clean Musa planting

materials and quarantine measures. Ann. Appl. Biol. 162, 314-326.
Brown, M.I., 2013. Redeeming REDD. London: Earthscan.
Bulafu, C., Baranga, D., Eycott, A.E., et al., 2013. Structural changes are more important than

compositional changes in driving biomass loss in Ugandan forest fragments. J. Trop. Forest. Environ. 3,

23-38.
Butynski, T.M., 1984. Ecological Survey of the Impenetrable (Bwindi) forest, Uganda, and

Recommendations for Its Conservation and Management. Kampala: Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife.
Butynski, T.M., 1990. Technical Report on Gorilla Tourism. Kampala: Ministry of Tourism and

Wildlife.
Byarugaba, D., 2008. Integrating indigenous knowledge, active conservation and wild food plant use

with reference to Dioscorea species in Bwindi forest, southwestern Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 48, 539-540.

doi:10.1111/j.13652028.2009.01038.x.
Carvalho, J., 1982. A Preliminary Report on Preparation of an Inventory of Forestry Resources Using

Data Available at the Nairobi Remote Sensing Facility with Reference to Uganda. Kampala: Forest

Research Centre, Forest Department.
Colonial Office, 1961. Buganda Agreement. London: Her Majesty′s Stationery Office.
Cramer, C., Johnston, D., Oya, C., et al., 2014. Fairtrade cooperatives in Ethiopia and Uganda

uncensored. Rev. Afr. Polit. Econ. 41, 115-127. doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2014.976192.
Cunningham, A.B., 1993. African medicinal plants: setting priorities at the interface between

conservation and primary healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper no. 1. Paris: Division of

Ecological Sciences, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Cunningham, A.B., 1996. People, park and plant use. People and Plants Working Paper no. 4. Paris:

Division of Ecological Sciences, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Cunningham, A.B., 2001. Applied Ethnobotany: People, Wild Plant Use and Conservation. London:

Earthscan.
Daniells, J., Karamura, D., 2013-2014. Banana brew and stew on Uganda′s menu. Aust. Bananas

Mag. 36-37.
Davey, M.W., Gudimella, R., Harikrishna, J.A., et al., 2013. A draft Musa balbisiana genome

sequence for molecular genetics in polyploid, inter and intraspecific Musa hybrids.

http://www.biomedcentral.com/14712164/14/683 BMC Geonomics. 14. doi:10.1186/14712164

14683.
Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., et al., 1986. Plants in Danger: What Do We Know?

Gland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
De Langhe, E., 2007. The establishment of traditional plantain cultivation in the African rain forest: a

working hypothesis. In: Denham, T., Iriate, J., Vrydaghs, L. (eds.), Rethinking Agriculture. Walnut

Creek: Left Coast Press, Inc. 361-370.
De Langhe, E., et al., 1994-5. Plantain in the early Bantu world. Azania. 2930, 147-160.
deMenocal, P.B., 2014. Climate shocks. Sci. Am. 311, 32-37.
Denham, T.P., Haberle, S.G., Lentfer, R., et al., 2003. Origins of agriculture in the Kuk Swamp in the

highlands of New Guinea. Science. 301, 189-193. doi:10.1126/science.1085255.
Derek, N., Philippson, G., 2003. Towards a historical classification of the Bantu languages. In: Derek,

N., Philippson, G. (eds.), The Bantu Languages. London: Routledge. 164-181.
Diamond, A.S., Hamilton, A.C., 1980. The distribution of forest passerine birds and Quaternary

climatic change in tropical Africa. J. Zool. 191, 379-402.
Drichi, P., 2002. National Biomass Study 1996-2002, Technical Report. Kampala: Forest

Department.
Duminil, J., Mona, S., Mardulyn, P., et al., 2015. Late Pleistocene molecular dating of past population

fragmentation and demographic changes in African rain forest tree species supports the forest refuge

hypothesis. J. Biogeogr. 42, 1-12. doi:10.1111/jbi.12510.
Earl, D.E., 1971. The Mabira forest. Uganda J. 60, 229-241.
Edel, M.M., 1957. The Chiga of Western Uganda. New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press.
Edmeades, S., Karamura, D., 2007. Banana taxonomy for Uganda. In: Smale, M., Tushemereirwe,

W.K. (eds.), An economic assessment of banana genetic improvement and innovation in the Lake

Victoria region of Uganda and Tanzania. Washington: International Food Policy Research Institute.

165-169.
Edmeades, S., Smale, M., Kikulwe, E.M., et al., 2007. Characteristics of bananagrowing

households and banana cultivars in Uganda and Tanzania. In: Smale, M., Tushemereirwe, W.K. (eds.),

An economic assessment of banana genetic improvement and innovation in the Lake Victoria region of

Uganda and Tanzania. Washinton: International Food Policy Research Institute. 49-71.
Eggeling, W.J., 1952. The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate. Entebbe: Government Printer.
Ehret, C., 1982. Linguistic inferences about early Bantu history. In: Ehret, C., Posnansky, M. (eds.),

The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Berkeley: University of California

Press. 57-65.
Ehret, C., 1998. An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History: 1000 BC to

400 AD. Oxford: James Currey.
Ehret, C., 2011. History and the Testimony of Language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Entenmann, S.K., Schmitt, C.B., Konold, W., 2014. REDD+related activities in Kenya: actors′

views on biodiversity and monitoring in a broader policy context. Biodivers. Conserv. 23, 2561-2586.
FAO, 1992. International Code of Conduct for Plant Germplasm Collecting and Transfer. Rome: Food

and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
FAO, 1998. The State of the World′s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome: Food

and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
FAO, 2010a. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization

of the United Nations.
FAO, 2010b. Global Forest Resources Assessment: Country Report for Uganda. Rome: Forestry

Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FOE, 2012. Land, Life and Justice: How Land Grabbing in Uganda is Affecting the Environment,

Livelihoods and Food Sovereignty of Communities. Amsterdam: Friends of the Earth International.
Galabuzi, C., Eilu, G., Mulugo, L., et al., 2014. Strategies for empowering the local people to

participate in forest restoration. Agroforest. Syst. 88, 719-734. doi:10.1007/s104570149713

6.
Galabuzi, C., Nabanoga, G.N., Ssegawa, P., et al., 2015. Double jeopardy: bark harvest for malaria

treatment and poor regeneration threaten tree population in a tropical forest of Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol.

53, 214-222. doi:10.1111/aje.12158.
Given, D.R., 1994. Principles and Practice of Plant Conservation. Portland: Timber Press.
Gold, C.S., Kiggundu, A., Abera, A.M.K., et al., 2002. Diversity, distribution and farmer preference

of Musa cultivars in Uganda. Exp. Agric. 38, 39-50.
Hamilton, A.C., 1972. The interpretation of pollen diagrams from highland Uganda. Palaeoecol. Afr. 7,

45-149.
Hamilton, A.C., 1975. The dispersal of forest tree species in Uganda during the Upper Pleistocene.

Boissiera. 24, 29-32.
Hamilton, A.C., 1976. The significance of patterns of distribution shown by forest plants and animals in

tropical Africa for the reconstruction of upper Pleistocene palaeoenvironments: a review.

Palaeoecol. Afr. 9, 63-97.
Hamilton, A.C., 1982. Environmental History of East Africa: a Study of the Quaternary. London:

Academic Press.
Hamilton, A.C., 1984. Deforestation in Uganda. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
Hamilton, A.C., 1987. Vegetation and climate of Mt Elgon during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.

Palaeoecol. Afr. 18, 283-304.
Hamilton, A.C., 1988. Guenon evolution and forest history. In: GautierHion, A., Bourlière, F.,

Gautier, J.P., et al. (eds.), A Primate Radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 13-34.
Hamilton, A.C., 1991. A Field Guide to Uganda Forest Trees. Kampala: Makerere University Printery.
Hamilton, A.C., 1992. History of forests and climate. In: Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S., Collins, N.M.

(eds.), The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Africa. Basingstoke: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Hamilton, A.C., (ed.), 2008. Medicinal Plants in Conservation and Development: Case Studies and

Lessons Learnt. Salisbury: Plantlife International.
Hamilton, A.C., 2011. An evidencebased approach to conservation through medicinal plants. Med.

Plant Conserv. 14, 2-7.
Hamilton, A.C., AumeeruddyThomas, Y., 2013. Maintaining resources for traditional medicine: a

global overview and a case study from Buganda (Uganda). Plant Divers. Resour. 35, 407-423.
Hamilton, A.C., Bensted Smith, R., 1989. Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains,

Tanzania. Gland and Cambridge: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural

Resources.
Hamilton, A.C., Baranga, J., Tindigarukayo, J., 1990. Proposed Bwindi (Impenetrable) National Park:

Results of a Public Inquiry and Recommendations for Its Establishment. Kampala: Uganda National

Parks.
Hamilton, A.C., Cunningham, A., Byarugaba, D., et al., 2000. Conservation in a region of political

instability. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1722-1725.
Hamilton, A.C., Hamilton, P.B., 2006. Plant Conservation: an Ecosystem Approach. London:

Earthscan.
Hamilton, A.C., Perrott, R.A., 1980. Modern pollen deposition on a tropical African mountain. Pollen

Spores. 22, 437-468.
Hamilton, A.C., Perrott, R.A., 1981. A study of altitudinal zonation in the Montane Forest Belt of Mt.

Elgon, East Africa. Vegetatio. 45, 107-125.
Hamilton, A.C., Taylor, D., 1986. Mire sediments in East Africa. In: Frostick, L.E., Renaut, R.W.,

Reid, I., et al. (eds.), Sedimentation in the African Rifts. London: Geological Society Special

Publication. 211-217.
Hamilton, A.C., Taylor, D., 1991. History of climate and forests in tropical Africa during the last 8

million years. Clim. Change. 19, 65-78.
Hamilton, A.C., Taylor, D., Vogel, J.C., 1986. Early forest clearance and environmental degradation in

southwest Uganda. Nature. 320, 164-167.
Hamilton, A.C., Taylor, D., Vogel, J.C., 1989. Neolithic forest clearance at Ahakagyezi, western

Uganda. In: Mahaney, W.C. (ed.), Quaternary and environmental research on East African mountains.

Rotterdam: Balkema. 435-463.
Harris, D.J., Poulsen, A.D., FrimodtMller, C., et al., 2000. Rapid radiation in Aframomum

(Zingiberaceae): evidence from nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed (ITS) sequences. Edinb. J.

Bot. 57, 377-395.
Hart, T.B., Hart, J.A., Dechamps, R., et al., 1996. Changes in forest composition over the last 4000

years in the Ituri basin, Zaire. In: van der Maesen, L.J.G., van der Burgt, X.M., van Medanback de

Rooy, J.M. (eds.), The Biodiversity of African Plants. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 541-

563.
Hawkes, J.G., Maxted, N., FordLloyd, B.V., 2001. The ex situ Conservation of Plant Genetic

Resources. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
HMSO, 1906. Census of the British Empire 1901. London: His Majesty′s Stationery Office.
Howard, P.C., 1991. Nature Conservation in Uganda′s Tropical Forest Reserves. Gland: International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Howard, P.C., Davenport, T.R.B., Kigenyi, F.W., et al., 2000. Protected area planning in the tropics:

Uganda′s national system of forest nature reserves. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1-19.
Iles, L., 2009. Impressions of banana pseudostem in iron slag from eastern Africa. Ethnobot. Res.

Appl. 7, 283-291.
Jacobs, B.F., 2004. Palaeobotanical studies from tropical Africa: relevance to the evolution of forest,

woodland and savannah biomes. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. 359, 1573-1583.
Jacovelli, P., Miuigan, B., Amumpe, A., et al., 2009. Tree Planting Guidelines for Uganda. revised edn.

Kampala: Sawlog Production Grant Scheme.
Jagger, P., 2008. Forest Incomes after Uganda′s Forest Sector Reform. Washington: Consultative

Group on International Agricultural Research.
Jolly, D., Taylor, D., Marchant, R., et al., 1997. Vegetation dynamics in central Africa since 18,000

BP: records from the interlacustrine highlands of Burundi, Rwanda and western Uganda. J. Biogeogr.

24, 495-512.
Kabogozza, J., 2011. Forest plantations and woodlots in Uganda. Working Paper. Nairobi: African

Forest Forum.
Kalema, J., Beentje, H., 2012. Conservation Checklist of the Trees of Uganda. Kew: Royal Botanic

Gardens.
Karamura, D., Karamura, E., Tushemereirwe, W.K., et al., 2010. Somatic mutations and their

implications to the conservation strategies of the East African highland bananas (Musa spp.). Acta

Hortic. 879, 615-622.
Karamura, D., Kiggundu, A., Karamura, E., 2011. The complementarity of farmers′ and botanical

descriptors of the East African Highland Banana Cultivars (Musa, AAA). Acta Hortic. 897, 107-112.

doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.897.10
Karamura, D., Mgenzi, B., 2004. On farm conservation of Musa diversity in the Great Lakes region of

East Africa. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 12, 75-83.
Karamura, D., Mgenzi, B., Karamura, E., et al. 2004. Exploiting indigenous knowledge for the

management and maintenance of Musa biodiversity on farm. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 12, 67-74.
Karamura, D., Pickersgill, B., 1999. A classification of the clones of East African Highland bananas

(Musa) found in Uganda. Plant Genet. Resour. Newslett. 119, 1-6.
Katende, A.B., Birnie A, Tengns B, 1995. Useful Trees and Shrubs for Uganda. Nairobi: Regional

Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.
Katuura, E., 2007. Traditional treatment of malaria in Mbarara district, western Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol.

45, 48-51.
Kendall, R.L., 1969. An ecological history of the Lake Victoria basin. Ecol. Monogr. 39, 121-176.
Kew, 2012. Plants under Pressurea Global Context. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.
Kiage, L.M., Liu Kambiu, 2006. Late Quaternary paleoenvironmental changes in East Africa: a

review of multiproxy evidence from palynology, lake sediments, and associated records. Prog. Phys.

Geog. 30, 633-658.
Kikulwe, E.M., Nowakunda, K., Byabachwezi, M.S.R., et al., 2007. Development and dissemination

of improved banana cultivars and management practices in Uganda and Tanzania. In: Smale, M.,

Tushemereirwe, W.K. (eds.), An Economic Assessment of Banana Genetic Improvement and

Innovation in the Lake Victoria Region of Uganda and Tanzania. Washington: International Food Policy

Research Institute. 37-48.
Killick, T., 2005. Understanding British Aid to Africa: a historical perspective. Dev. Pol. Rev. 23, 665

-681.
Kisekka, J.W., 2012. Paper mulberry: good or bad for Uganda?

http://www.ugandacoalition.or.ug/content/papermulberrygoodorbaduganda. Uganda

Coalition for Sustainable Development. Accessed 23 June 2015.
LangdaleBrown, I., Osmaston, H.A., Wilson, J.G., 1964. The Vegetation of Uganda (excluding

Karamoja) and Its Bearing on Land Use. Entebbe: Government Printer.
Lange, D., 1997. Trade in plant material for medicinal and other purposes. TRAFFIC Bull. 17, 21-32.
Lejja, B.J., Taylor, D., Robertshaw, P., 2005. LateHolocene environmental variability at Munsa

archaeological site, Uganda: a multicore, multiproxy approach. Holocene. 15, 1044-1061.
Lejju, J.B., Taylor, D., Robertshaw, P., 2006. Africa′s earliest bananas? Journal of Archaeological,

Science. 33, 102-113.
Lind, E.M., 1956. Studies in Uganda swamps. Uganda J. 20, 166-176.
Livingstone, D.A., 1967. Postglacial vegetation of the Ruwenzori Mountains in Equatorial Africa. Ecol.

Monogr. 37, 25-52.
Lockwood Consultants Ltd., 1973. Forest Resource Development Study, Republic of Uganda.

Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.
LTS, 2010. Review of the Forestry Sector in Uganda: Proposals for Improving Governance and

Effective Management in the Forestry Sector. Penicuik: LTS International.
Lunyiigo, S.L., 2011. The struggle for land in Buganda 1888-2005. Kampala: Wavah Books Ltd.
Lwanga, J., 1992. Traditional healers baseline survey in Gomba County (Uganda).

http://www.popline.org/node/328013. Accessed 29 August 2015.
Lye, K.A., BukenyaZiraba, R., Tabuti, J.R.S., et al., 2008. Plantmedicinal Dictionary for East

Africa. Kampala: Makerere University Herbarium.
Lyons, K., Richards, C., Westoby, P., 2014. The Darker Side of Green: Plantation Forestry and

Carbon Violence in Uganda. Oakland: The Oakland Institute.
Marchant, R., Taylor, D., Hamilton, A.C., 1997. Late Pleistocene and Holocene history at Mubwindi

Swamp, southwest Uganda. Quaternary Res. 47, 316-328.
Martin, G., 1995. Ethnobotany: A Methods Manual. London: Chapman and Hall.
Mbida, C., Doutrelepont, H., Vrydaghs, L., 2001. First archaeological evidence of banana cultivation

in central Africa during the third millennium before present. Veg. Hist. Archaeobot. 10, 1-6.
McGlynn, G., Mooney, S., Taylor, D., 2013. Palaeoecological evidence for Holocene environmental

change from the Virunga volcanoes in the Albertine Rift, central Africa. Quaternary Sci. Rev. 61, 32-

46.
Meunier, Q., Lemmens, R., Morin, A., 2010. Alternatives to Exotic Species in Uganda: Growth and

Cultivation of 85 Indigenous Trees. Kampala: GraphiConsult (U) Ltd.
Mills, R., 2006. Preserving the past for the future: the importance of archival information in forestry.

http://www.istl.org/46supp/article9.html. Accessed 29 August 2015.
Morrison, M.E.S., 1968. Vegetation and climate in the uplands of southwestern Uganda during the

Later Pleistocene Period, 1. Muchoya Swamp, Kigezi District. J. Ecol. 56, 363-384.
Morrison, M.E.S., Hamilton, A.C., 1974. Vegetation and climate in the uplands of southwestern

Uganda during the later Pleistocene period, 2: forest clearance and other vegetational changes in the

Rukiga Highlands during the past 8000 years. J. Ecol. 62, 1-31.
Mukombozi, R., 2013. NARO workers evict armed herdsmen.

http://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/NAROworkersevictarmedherdsmen/
/688334/1670994//pqnv7k//index.html. Accessed 29 August 2015.
Mulumba, J.W., Nkwiine, C., MaleKayiwa, B., et al., 2004. Evaluation of farmers′ best practices

for onfarm conservation of rare banana cultivars in the semiarid region of Lwengo subcounty,

Uganda. Uganda J. Agri. Sci. 9, 281-288.
Mutengesa, S., 2012. Mailo akenda is Mengo′s emblem of selfdeception.

http://www.independent.co.ug/column/opinion/5131mailoakendaismengosemblemof

selfdeception. The Independent. Accessed 28 August 2015.
Nakkazi, E., 2011. Ugandans mobilize to save Mabira forest from sugarcane plantation.

http://www.theecologist.org/campaigning/wildlife/1057616/ugandans_mobilise_to_save_mabira_forest

_from_sugarcane_plantation.html. Accessed 29 August 2015.
Nantale, G., Kakudidi, E.K., Karamura, D.A., et al., 2008. Scientific basis for banana cultivar

proportions onfarm in East Africa. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 16, 41-49.
Newmann, K., Hildebrand, E., 2009. Early bananas in Africa: the state of the art. Ethnobot. Res.

Appl. 7, 353-362.
Nicholson, J.W., 1929. The Future of Forestry in Uganda. Entebbe: Government Printer.
Nsita, S.A., 2005. Decentralisation and Forest Management in Uganda. In: Colfer, C.J.P., Capistrano,

D. (eds.), The politics of decentralization: forests, power and people. London: Earthscan.
Nuwagaba, T.F., 2014. Totems of Uganda: Buganda edition. Kampala: Taga Nuwagaba and Nathan

Kiwere.
Onyango, M., Karamura, D., Keely, S., et al., 2011. Morphological characterisation of East African

AAB and AA dessert bananas (Musa spp.). Acta Hort. 897, 95-105.
Oslisly, R., White, L., 2007. Human impact and environmental exploitation in Gabon during the

Holocene. In: Denham, T.P., Iriate, J., Vrydaghs, L. (eds.), Rethinking agriculture: Archaeological and

Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. 347-360.
Osmaston, H.A., 1968. Uganda. Hedberg I, Hedberg O. Conservation of Vegetation in Africa South

of the Sahara. Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksells Boktryckeri AB.
Pei, S.J., 2010. The Road to the Future? The Biocultural Values of the Holy Hill Forests of Yunnan

Province, China. In: Verschuuren, B., Wild, R., McNeely, J.A., et al. (eds.), Sacred Natural Sites.

London: Earthscan. 98-106.
Pei, S.J., Hamilton, A.C., Yang, L.X., et al., 2010. Conservation and development through medicinal

plants: a case study from Ludian (Northwest Yunnan, China) and presentation of a general model.

Biodivers. Conserv. 19, 2619-2636.
Pei, S.J., Huai, H.Y., Hamilton, A.C., et al., 2009. Plant Resource Conservation. Beijing: China

Environmental Science and Technology Press.
Perrier, X., De Langhe, E., Donohue, M., et al., 2011. Multidisciplinary perspectives on banana (Musa

spp.) domestication. PNAS USA. 108, 11311-11318. doi:10.1073/pnas.1102001108.
Pillay, M., Dimkpa, C., Ude, G., et al., 2003. Genetic variation in banana cultivar ‘sukali ndiizi’ grown

in different regions of Uganda. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 11, 87-95.
Pillay, M., Ssebuliba, R., Hartman, J., et al., 2004. Conventional breeding strategies to enhance the

sustainability of Musa biodiversity conservation for endemic cultivars. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 12, 59-65.
Plana, V., 2004. Mechanisms and tempo of evolution in the African GuineoCongolian rainforest.

Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. 349, 1585-1594.
PrescottAllen, R., PrescottAllen, C., 1988. Genes from the Wild: Using Wild Genetic Resources

for Food and Raw Materials. London: Earthscan.
Ray, B.C., 1991. Myth, Ritual, and Kingship in Buganda. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Reimer, P.J., et al., 2009. IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0-50,000 years

cal BP. Radiocarbon. 51, 1111-1150.
Richardson, J.E., Chatrou, L.W., Mols, J.B., et al., 2004. Historical biogeography of two

cosmopolitan families of flowering plants: Annonaceae and Rhamnaceae. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. B.

359, 1495-1508.
Robertshaw, P., Kamuhangire, E.R., Reid, A., et al., 1997. Archaeological research in

BunyoroKitara: preliminary results. Nyame Akuma. 48, 70-77.
RossignolStrick, M., 1983. African monsoons, an immediate climate response to orbital insolation.

Nature. 304, 46-49.
RossignolStrick, M., Nesteroff, W., Olive, P., et al., 1982. After the deluge: Mediterranean

stagnation and sapropel formation. Nature. 295, 105-110.
Rugadya, M., 1999. Land reform: the Ugandan experience.

http://www.mokoro.co.uk/files/13/file/lria/land_reform_ugandan_experience.pdf. Accessed 29 August

2015.
Ryves, D.B., Mius, K., Bennike O., et al., 2011. Environmental change over the last millennium

recorded in two contrasting crater lakes in western Uganda, eastern Africa (Lakes Kasenda and

Wandakara). Quaternary Sci. Rev. 30, 555-569.
Sackett, D.L., Rosenberg, W.M.C., Gray, J.A.M., et al., 1996. Evidencebased medicine: what it is

and what it isn’t. Brit. Med. J. 312, 71-72.
Sassen, M., 2014. Conservation in a Crowded Place: Forest and People on Mount Elgon, Uganda.

Wageningen: Wageningen University.
Sassen, M., Sheil, D., Giller, K.E., et al., 2013. Complex contexts and dynamic drivers: understanding

four decades of forest loss and recovery in an East African protected area. Biol. Conserva. 159, 257

-268.
Schippmann, U., Leaman, D.J., Cunningham, A.B., 2006. Cultivation and wild collection of medicinal

and aromatic plants under sustainability aspects. In: Bogers, R.J., Craker, L.E., Lange, D. (eds.),

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Wageningen UR Frontis Series, 17 edn. Dordrecht: Springer.
Schoenbrun, D.L., 1993a. Cattle herds and banana gardens: the historical geography of the western

Great Lakes region, ca AD 800-1500. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 11, 39-72.
Schoenbrun, D.L., 1993b. We are what we eat: ancient agriculture between the great lakes. J. Afr.

Hist. 34, 1-31.
Schoenbrun, D.L., 1994. The contours of vegetation change and human agency in eastern Africa′s

Great Lakes region. Hist. Afr. 21, 269-302.
Schoenbrun, D.L., 1998. A green place, a good place: agrarian change, gender and social identity in

the Great Lakes Region to the 15th Century. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
Sembajjwe, W.S.G., 1995. Sacred forests in Ganda society. Uganda J. 42, 32-44.
Smale, M., Tushemereirwe, W.K. (eds.), 2007. An Economic Assessment of Banana Genetic

Improvement and Innovation in the Lake Victoria Region of Uganda and Tanzania. Washington:

International Food Policy Research Institute.
Sosef, M.S.M., 1994. Refuge begonias: taxonomy, phylogeny and historical biogeography of Begonia

sect. Loasibeongia and sect. Scutobegonia in relation to glacial rainforest refuges. In: van der Maesen,

L.J.G., van der Burgt, X.M., Medenbach de Rooy, J.M. (eds.), The Biodiversity of African Plants.

Dordrecht: Kluwer. 602-611.
Ssemmanda, I., Ryves, D.B., Bennike, O., et al., 2005. Vegetation history in western Uganda during

the last 1200 years: a sedimentbased reconstruction from two crater lakes. Holocene. 15, 119-132.
Sutherland, W.J., Pullin, A.S., Dolman, P.M., et al., 2004. The need for evidencebased

conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19, 305-308.
Tabuti, J.R.S., 2008. Herbal medicines used in the treatment of malaria in Budiope, Uganda: plants,

use and administration. J. Ethnopharmacol. 88, 19-44.
Tabuti, J.R.S., Dhillion, S.S., Lye, K.A., 2003. Traditional medicine in Bulamogi country, Uganda: its

practitioners, users and viability. J. Ethnopharmacol. 85, 119-129.
Tattersall, I., 2014. If I had a hammer. Sci. Am. 311, 39-43.
Taylor, D., Hamilton, A.C., Lewis, S.L., et al., 2008. Thirtyeight years of change in a tropical forest:

plot data from Mpanga Forest Reserve, Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 46, 655-667.
Taylor, D., Marchant, R.A., Robertshaw, P., 1999. A sedimentbased history of medium altitude

forest in central Africa: a record from Kabata Swamp, Ndale volcanic field, Uganda. J. Ecol. 87, 303

-315.
Taylor, D.M., 1990. Late Quaternary pollen records from two Ugandan mires: evidence for

environmental change in the Rukiga Highlands of southwest Uganda. Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl. 80, 283-

300.
Tenywa, G., 2005. BIDCO gets Bugala Island forest land. Kampala, Uganda, New Vision, 14

September 2005.
Tenywa, G., 2013. Oil palm growing threatens Buggala Island forest cover. Kampala, Uganda, New

Vision, 17 April 2013.
Thomas, A.S., 1940. Uganda banana varieties and their uses. In: Tothill, J.D. (ed.), Agriculture in

Uganda. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 116-120.
Thompson, K., Hamilton, A.C., 1983. Peatland and swamps of the African continent. In: Gore, A.J.P.

(ed.), Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moor, B: Regional Studies. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 331-373.
Tierney, J.A., Lewis, S.C., Cook, B.I., et al., 2011. Model, proxy and isotopic perspectives on the

East African Humid Period. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 307, 103-112.
Tothill, J.D. (ed), 1940. Agriculture in Uganda. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Tugume, A.K., Lubega, G.W., Rubaihayo, P.R., 2002. Genetic diversity of East African Highland

bananas using AFLP. Infomusa. 11, 28-32.
Tuxill, J., Nabhan, G.P., 2001. People, Plants and Protected Areas. London: Earthscan.
Twongyirwe, R., Sheil, D., Sandbrook, C.G., et al., 2015. REDD at the crossroads? The

opportunities and challenges of REDD for conservation and human welfare in South West Uganda. Int.

J. Environ. Sust. Dev. 14, 273-298.
USAID, 2013. Uganda Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment Report. Arlington: United States

Agency for International Development.
USAID, 2015. Uganda: property rights and resource governance.

http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/countryprofiles/fullreports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Uga

nda_Profile.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2015.
Van Grunderbeek, M.C., Roche, E., 2007. Multidisciplinary evidence of mixed farming during the

Early Iron Age in Rwanda and Burundi. In: Denham, T., Iriate, J., Vrydaghs, L. (eds.), Rethinking

Agriculture. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, Inc. 299-319.
Van Orsdol, K.G., 1983. The Status of Kibale Forest Reserve in Western Uganda and

Recommendations for Its Conservation and Management. Kampala: Ministry of Agriculture and

Forestry.
van Schaik, A., Tickell, O., 2015. UN, banks and oil palm giants feast on the stolen land of Uganda′s

dispossessed.

http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/2759987/un_banks_and_oil_palm_giants_feast_on_

the_stolen_land_of_ugandas_dispossessed.html. Accessed 29 August 2015.
Veit, P., 2010. Land for Private Investors and Economic Development: Uganda. Washington: World

Resources Institute.
Vleminckx, J., MorinRivat J., Biwolé A.B., et al., 2014. Soil charcoal to assess the impacts of past

human disturbances on tropical forests. PLOS ONE. 9, 1-9.
Webster, G., Osmaston, H.A., 2003. A history of the Uganda Forest Department 1951-1965.

London: Commonwealth Secretariat.
West, H.W., 1965. The Mailo System in Buganda. Entebbe: Uganda Government.
White, S., Wanyama, F., 2006. Forest management working paper: the case of Mt Elgon UWA/FACE

Carbon Sequestration Project in Uganda. Rome: Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations.
Wild, R.G., Mutebi, J., 1996. Conservation through Community Use of Plant Resources. People and

Plants Working Paper no. 5. Paris: Division of Ecological Sciences, United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Wild, R.G., Mutebi, J., 1997. Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda: conservation through

collaborative management. Nature Resour. 33, 33-51.
World Bank, 2015. Population estimates and projections.

http://datatopics.worldbank.org/hnp/popestimates. Accessed 9 August 2015.
Wrigley, C.C., 1989. Bananas in Buganda. Azania. 24, 64-70.
Zawedde, B.M., Harris, C., Alajo, A., et al., 2014. Factors influencing diversity of farmer′s varieties of

sweet potato in Uganda: implications for conservation. Economic Bot. 68, 337-349.

[1]	Vivian Kathambi, Fredrick Munyao Mutie, Peninah Cheptoo Rono, Neng Wei, Jacinta Ndunge Munyao, Peris Kamau, Robert Wahiti Gituru, Guang-Wan Hu, Qing-Feng Wang. Traditional knowledge, use and conservation of plants by the communities of Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya[J]. Plant Diversity, 2020, 42(06): 479-487.
[2]	LONG Chun-Lin. ETHNOBOTANY OF AMORPHOPHALLUS OF CHINA[J]. Plant Diversity, 1998, 20(10): 1-3.