Background & Aims: Biodiversity conservation stands as a critical imperative for China’s ecological security and the advancement of an ecological civilization. It also represents a vital public welfare endeavor crucial for fostering sustainable development. Despite significant efforts, China’s biodiversity conservation efforts continue to confront substantial challenges, including habitat fragmentation, declining habitat quality, and the proliferation of invasive species. Existing biodiversity conservation policies have thus far fallen short of effectively reversing the overarching trend of biodiversity loss. In light of these challenges, this paper seeks to explore the visionary objectives of biodiversity conservation in China. It analyzes the evolutionary trajectory of China’s biodiversity conservation policies, highlights key measures implemented, and outlines the development trend of biodiversity conservation development in the country.

Policy evolution: To reconcile the delicate balance between conservation and development imperatives, the state has implemented a diverse array of plans, strategies, notifications, and measures. Beginning with the protection of individual species, China has progressively expanded and refined the scope, objectives, and strategies of biodiversity conservation, gradually crafting a comprehensive policy framework for biodiversity conservation. Reflecting the evolving focus on conservation targets, China’s biodiversity protection has transitioned from single-species protection and classification-based approaches to a more holistic and integrated conservation paradigm. Furthermore, biodiversity conservation efforts have been systematically integrated into various national plans, facilitating comprehensive protection across diverse ecosystems and species. Consequently, China’s biodiversity conservation journey can be delineated into three distinct stages: the nascent phase (pre-1994), the rapid development stage (1994‒2010), and the ongoing in-depth improvement stage (2010‒present).

Main measures: In general, China has implemented a variety of conservation and restoration measures, resulting in notable successes across multiple fronts. These measures can be broadly characterized as direct protection, prevention and control, and sustainable use. Initially, biodiversity conservation efforts primarily focused on direct protection measures. However, over time, there has been a discernable shift towards a more comprehensive approach, encompassing a combination of direct conservation strategies, prevention, control measures, and sustainable utilization practices.

Development trends: To advance the establishment of a robust biodiversity conservation policy framework and elevate the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation efforts, it is imperative to achieve alignment, or the “three fits”, between biodiversity conservation and territorial spatial planning, the advancement of information technology, and the formulation of national strategies. By ensuring coherence and synergy, it is envisaged that this approach will facilitate the attainment of biodiversity conservation objectives and realize the vision of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature by 2050.

Background & Aim The construction of relevant laws and regulations in nature reserves plays an important role in combating various illegal and criminal activities that damage nature reserves, maintaining national ecological security, protecting biodiversity, preserving natural heritage and improving the quality of ecological environment. Local legislation is an important part of the legal system of nature reserves in China. There are lots of local legislations on nature reserves in China, but there is still a certain gap between them and the current requirements of ecological civilization construction and quality and efficiency improvement of nature reserve management. In order to enhance the implementation effect of local legislation on nature reserves in China and make it play an important role in protecting biodiversity, we studied the development dilemma and optimization path of local legislation on nature reserves.

Method Our study searched and summarized a total of 116 effective local legislations of nature reserves in China. We then analyzed the characteristics of local legislations of nature reserves in China from the aspects of spatial and temporal distribution, number of legislations and legislative models. Through literature and comparative research, we conducted in-depth analysis of the problems existing in local legislations of nature reserves.

Review Results We found that the local legislation of nature reserves mainly presents the characteristics of large legislative time span, rapid growth in the number of legislation in the new era, wide geographical distribution of legislation, and the combination of comprehensiveness and specialization in the legislative model. At present, the local legislation of nature reserves is facing many problems, such as outdated legislation, conflicting legislation, repeated legislation and so on.

Conclusion In order to adapt to China’s reform goal of “establishing a natural reserve system with national parks as the main body”, we can try to work hard from the two dimensions of legislative clean-up and legislative characteristics in the future, speed up the process of local legislative clean-up, and highlight local legislative characteristics, so as to improve the quality and effectiveness of local legislation in China’s nature reserves.

Aim: In the process of long-term mutual adaptation with their living environment, Dulong people have been relying on biological resources to maintain their survival and life. They have accumulated a lot of traditional knowledge on the use of bio-resources and the protection of the ecological environment. The purpose of this study is to record the traditional knowledge, explore the ecological concepts, analyze the threats, and promote them to provide better services for the protection of biocultural diversity in the Dulongjiang region.

Method: In this study, ethnobiological method including semi-structure interview and participatory observations were used to investigate the traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity in Dulong community, and to analyze the ecological thoughts.

Results: The results showed that the Dulong people had rich traditional knowledge, involving a total of 399 species of organisms. Among them, 209 plant (and fungi) species were collected for livelihood, 179 species for animal husbandry, 26 for timber and construction, 34 for fishing and hunting, 25 for farming, and 31 for firewood. The traditional livelihood methods of the Dulong people, such as collecting, breeding, fishing and hunting, fuelwood collection and farming practices, contain sustainable ecological ideas, which are conducive to the conservation of local biocultural diversity.

Recommendations With the rapid economic development and the improvement of transportation, traditional livelihoods and knowledge in Dulongjiang area are facing different opportunities and challenges. For example, cultural shock, intergenerational discontinuity, the cultivation of a single crop and orientation of ecological policy, etc. It is necessary to conduct a more comprehensive investigation, recording and cataloging of traditional knowledge through ethnobotanical methods, follow by research with modern ethnobotanical methods to provide guidance, using new technology to explain the scientificity of traditional knowledge, strengthen the protection, inheritance and benefit sharing of traditional knowledge, and tap the essence of the traditional livelihood of the Dulong to promote the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable development services, and ecological civilization in the Dulongjiang area.

Aims As the core area of the ecological security barrier in northwest China, Xinjiang has been highly concerned for the spatial variations in its ecological environment status and quality and their driving mechanisms.

Methods Based on the MODIS surface albedo data set (MOD09 A1) from 2003 to 2020, this study uses the advanced three-band gradient difference vegetation index (advanced TGDVI) to obtain the fractional vegetation cover (FVC), and uses multiple statistical methods, such as linear regression, partial correlation analysis, Tukey-test to analyze the spatio-temporal variation of FVC and to quantify the contribution of temperature, precipitation, and groundwater storage (GWS) to FVC in Xinjiang.

Important findings (1) In the past 18 years, the average FVC of Xinjiang has increased from 20.08% to 21.76%, showing an increasing trend as a whole, with a growth rate of 0.19%∙a^-1, and a rapid growth stage is found after 2008. Among them, cropland has the largest growth rate (0.66%∙a^-1), and sparse grassland has the slowest growth rate (0.11%∙a^-1). (2) Temperature is an important factor affecting FVC in the whole growing season in Xinjiang. The influence of temperature on FVC is mainly concentrated in spring and autumn, while precipitation and GWS are the main factors in summer. (3) In summer, GWS is the main factor affecting FVC of shrubland and cropland, precipitation has the greatest impact on FVC of grassland, and GWS has a greater impact on FVC of sparse grassland in summer. (4) With the hydrothermal conditions becoming wetter, the influence of temperature on FVC in Xinjiang gradually decreases, while the influence of precipitation increases. The influence of GWS on FVC increased from arid to semi-arid condition, and then it decreased from semi-arid to humid condition. The results of this study could provide theoretical foundation for ecological restoration and construction in Xinjiang, and have great significance for promoting the construction of ecological civilization and green sustainable development in Xinjiang.

Background: The 19th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP 19) to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) took place in Panama from the 14th to the 25th of November 2022. The meeting was attended by 2,500 delegates representing more than 160 Parties and observers to the Convention. The COVID-19 pandemic impacted all CITES Parties and significantly disrupted the implementation of CITES. The CoP shared the actions and the experiences of the Parties, the Secretariat, the Committee members and observers in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Progress: Delegates reviewed 52 proposed amendments to the Appendices and discussed 91 agenda items. There was the highest proportion of proposals for new Appendix II species but the lowest number of revising annotation proposals the CoP 19 has considered in nearly 25 years. The CoP updated the regulation of international trade in over 600 species of animals and plants. In the adopted proposals, international trade in 50 species of freshwater turtles, 158 species of glass frogs, 100 species of sharks and rays, 150 species of trees and dozens of species of roseroots will be regulated as the newly revised lists are enforced. The CoP adopted the financing and the cost of the programme of work for the triennium 2023‒2025, with an overall budget being 6.1% higher compared to the triennium 2020‒2022. The Conference further refined compliance and enforcement requirements for elephants, big cats, totoaba and other wildlife species threatened with extinction. With the implementations of engagement of indigenous peoples and local communities, livelihoods-related issues have been relatively slow and hampered. Parties vigorously debated proposed amendments to the Rules of Procedure and criteria for the amendments of CITES Appendices, but no substantive amendments were adopted. A pilot version of the World Wildlife Trade Report and the Assessment Report on the Sustainable Use of Wild Species: Policy-Maker Summary were discussed and heard. CITES has added several new topics in the CoP to address new challenges, such as the role of CITES in reducing the risk of future zoonotic diseases associated with the international wildlife trade. The CoP 19 recommends interdisciplinary research to analyze the role of CITES in the conservation and sustainable use of forests. The Parties resolved to work on building gender equality into the international trade in wildlife, recognizing that women are often guardians of wildlife and biodiversity but, just as often, are not recognized or benefit from this trade.

Prospects: Regardless of the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, China’s CITES authorities made thorough preparations for the CoP, conducting research two years in advance and drafting a proposal a report which was submitted to the CoP 19, organized pre-session and in-session consultations with scientific authorities, collected information from all parties, and actively led the discussions in working groups, presenting a positive view of China in prioritizing ecological civilization and fulfilling its responsibilities as a major country. CITES will celebrate its 50th anniversary in 2023. The record 365 decisions in CoP 19 demonstrate that CITES Parties continue to take action to address the unprecedented pressures on species due to overexploitation and illegal trade.

Background & Aims: Traditional cultures typically harbor some knowledge and skills on sustainably using and protecting natural resources, which is helpful in modern biodiversity conservation and ecological civilization construction. Bombax ceiba is a common tall tree in tropical and subtropical regions. The tall and straight trunk, big, red flowers, and the fruit fiber of B. caiba that can be spun make people know and use B. ceiba for a long time, has caused the nearby civilizations to learn how to ultilize the tree, and form a rich culture surrounding the tree.

Progress: In Central America and Australia, B. ceiba is mainly used for canoes and carving, while in Asia this unusual tree is of much more importance in utilizations and has become ‘Cultural Keystone Species’ in India, Vietnam, Myanmar and South China, and as a consequence, more ancient trees (> 100 years) of B. ceiba can be found in Asia than other regions. In China, B. ceiba cultures have a long history and can be traced back to Xia and Shang Dynasty since B. ceiba characters is found in SHAN HAI JING and the Sanxingdui Ruins. Due to its high economical use and cultural importance, B. ceiba is always the dominant tree in ‘Fengshui forest’ near villages and farmlands, with some rare species and native vegetation. In Vietnam, Bangladesh, and South China where rice is widely planted long time ago, many B. ceiba trees are kept in the rice fields and formed a special type of agroforestry system, i.e. kapok-rice agroforestry system. Resource recycling ideas and biodiversity conservation thoughts can be found within the traditional farming practices in this system, which is promising for applying China’s important agricultural cultural heritage to modern day conservation methods, although the underlying ecological mechanism is in need of further illumination.

Prospects: It is the important to explore the ecological basis of Bombax cultures and their associated biodiversity knowledge with modernized practices, with an aim to facilitate tropical special high-efficiency agriculture, rural vitalization, and ecological civilization.

Background & Aims: Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is an observational method that collects acoustic signals of wildlife and the surrounding environment using automatic sound recorders. PAM itself is a multidisciplinary technique, integrating biology, ecology, acoustics, and computer science, and was developed in the 1990s first to study bats and primates. Since then, PAM has been utilized in a variety of research contexts to study animal behavior, ecology, and conservation biology. However, a systematic review of the progress of the field is lacking.

Progress: Here, we review how PAM has been used to monitor terrestrial mammal activity patterns, habitat use, species distribution, population size and density, biodiversity, and human influence. We also identify factors which prevent its wider application, such as the complexity of storing and managing acoustic data, limitations of acoustic indices, challenges associated with automated identification of species or individuals, and the overall cost of equipment. As a consequence, we observe limited use of PAM in terrestrial mammal research, especially in China.

Perspective: Finally, we discuss potential novel applications of PAM to study terrestrial mammals. We highlight the importance of establishing and improving standardized PAM networks and data management platforms, developing citizen science programs, encouraging participation of more scientific institutions, and expanding the presence of acoustic monitors particularly throughout protected areas. PAM is an indispensable technique which can further support efforts to conserve biodiversity and increase ecological consciousness in China.

Background: Innovation in the application of intelligent sensors, artificial intelligence, and information technology has greatly increased the potential for global biodiversity conservation and restoration.
Aims: Considering the significant advances in wildlife monitoring using infrared cameras at home and abroad, combined with a literature review, this paper aims to assess the current status and relevant topics from wildlife camera-trapping monitoring research in China since 2011. Combined with important research cases at home and abroad to explore the cutting-edge issues of camera-trapping monitoring research, this paper will provide suggestions for the future of camera-trapping monitoring research in China.
Main issues: The main contents of this paper are as follows: (1) We conducted and summarized a literature review of wildlife camera-trapping monitoring research in China during the past 30 years (1991-2021); (2) By reviewing major research cases in China since 2011, we assessed five primary topics such as technical methods, species discovery and inventory, morphology and behavioral research, ecological research, and conservation and management; (3) Utilizing recent research cases abroad, we evaluated cutting-edge trends in the field of infrared camera monitoring research; and (4) We provide relevant suggestions for the future development of wildlife camera-trapping monitoring research in China.
Conclusions: Through our review, this paper underscores the innovative trend of infrared camera technology application and development at home and abroad in wildlife monitoring and research during the past decade. We provide a reference basis for China’s future development in this field, so as to better serve the construction of China’s biodiversity monitoring and research network as well as the construction of protected areas systems centering on national parks. Finally, we promote the construction of a national ecological civilization by providing a scientific basis for making decisions in ensuring ecological security and biosafety.

Aims: Wild Plants with Extremely Small Populations (WPESP) are plant species with high risk of extinction that are in urgent need of conservation. This concept has become a hotspot of biodiversity conservation in China since it was first proposed. In 2010, China officially launched the Implementation Plan of Rescuing and Conserving China’s WPESP (2011-2015), which initiated conservation research efforts and achieved successful progress.
Methods: We conducted a topic search on Web of Science and on China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) with “extremely small population*” and “plant” as the search terms. We reviewed the research results and achievements from academic papers, dissertations, and conference papers in order to evaluate the conservation of WPESP in China.
Results: WPESP research provides an important theoretical basis to guide conservation practice. We systematically reviewed research on the conservation of WPESP in recent years from six aspects: (1) the survey and monitoring of population, community and habitat, (2) adaptation, (3) genetic diversity, (4) reproductive biology, (5) endangered mechanisms, and (6) dynamic models. In this paper, we reviewed WPESP conservation progress from five aspects: (1) in situ conservation, (2) ex situ conservation and germplasm conservation, (3) reintroduction, (4) artificial propagation, and (5) technical regulation system construction. We also proposed several priorities for future conservation research.
Conclusions: Based on current theoretical and practical research, we propose five priorities for future conservation research of WPESP in China. We suggest that the conservation list should be adjusted and improved periodically. Researchers should highlight the observation and prediction of population structure, reinforce research on the formation and recovery mechanisms of small populations and conduct long-term systematic studies of specific species. The WPESP concept should be promoted at international levels to increase its influence. We hope this review may provide a reference for national biodiversity protection and ecological civilization construction.

Background & Aims: “Carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” is an important strategy to guide the current development of China. Based on the spatial distribution of carbon emission areas, cities and their surrounding areas are the most carbon emission areas. With the urbanization in China, how to effectively reduce carbon emissions and increase carbon sinks has become a key issue. As the only natural carbon sink in urban space, the role of the urban greenspace system in carbon sequestration and increasing carbon sink is becoming prominent. However, it is unclear whether improving the carbon sequestration capacity of urban greenspace will affect biodiversity. Here we use the general principle of life-history evolution in ecology to analyze the trade-off between the carbon sink capacity and the ability to adapt to climate change in urban greenspace.

Results: This paper proposed that urban greenspace can both have biodiversity and carbon sink according to the following suggestions. First, the species database should incorporate the carbon reduction capacity, the ability to adapt to environmental changes, and the ability to cope with extreme changes. Second, the trade-off relationship between carbon sink capacity and ability to cope with climate change will divide species into different types, such as high carbon sink with low adaptation, and low carbon sink with high adaptation. Third, appropriate species are selected to improve the carbon sink function through diverse combinations. The carbon sink capacity could be stronger when the environment is stable, more stable when the environment is changing, and less loss of carbon sink when the environment is extreme. Finally, native plants should be used to improve biodiversity and reduce carbon emissions in the management process.

Conclusion: Improving the carbon sink capacity and biodiversity conservation will be achieved in the urban greenspace. The structure and function of the urban ecosystem are equally significant for the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality strategy and the construction of ecological civilization.

Background & Aims: Plant names are the basic elements for the activities of botanical research and utilization by human. The change of the plant names could be resulted in a barrier among different fields, and the wrong identification or misuse of plant names could bring with inconveniences or even damages. As the capital of China, Beijing has higher requirements for the the standard and capacity on managing plant diversity information changes under the situation of biodiversity conservation and ecological civilization construction. It is very important for botanists, horticulturalists and practitioners in plant-related industries to update the changes of plant names and their processes in a timely and accurate manner.
Method: Based on various reports of vascular plants in Beijing in the past 30 years (from 1992 through 2021), both journals and books published during this period, including new taxa, new records and new distribution, we updated vascular plants of Flora of Beijing (1992 Revised Edition).
Results: In total, from 1992 through 2021, the vascular plants of Beijing have been added by 34 new taxa, 175 new records, 509 new synonyms, 49 wrong identifications as well as 50 unsure taxa.
Conclusion: The great changes have taken place in the vascular plants of Beijing in the past 30 years. This update could be used as an important reference for monitoring and conservation of vascular plant diversity in Beijing.

Background & Aims: Plant resources are the basic component of natural ecosystems and are crucial for sustainable economic and social development. They are also core resources related to national ecological security and biosafety. The conservation of plant diversity mainly includes in situconservation and ex situ conservation. The establishment of a natural reserve system with national parks as the main body is the main form of in situ conservation. The development of a botanical garden system led by national botanical gardens is mainly for ex situ conservation. The two conservation strategies are indispensable and complementary. They jointly form a relatively complete plant biodiversity conservation system in China. The ex situconservation of China’s plant diversity through the establishment of a national botanical garden system can also facilitate scientific research, garden display, public education, as well as the utilization of plant resources. It is of great significance to further promote the construction of ecological civilization and high-quality economic development.

Progress: This paper reviews the functional changes of botanical gardens and the current situation of ex situconservation in botanical gardens around the world and China. The botanical garden originated from the cultivation, research and experimental of medicinal plants, and has gone through the development stages of medicinal botanical gardens or university medicinal botanical gardens, tropical (colonial economy) botanical gardens, European classic botanical gardens, municipal botanical gardens and special types of botanical gardens (including agricultural botanical gardens, horticultural botanical gardens, germplasm collection gardens, etc.). At present, ex situ conservation of plant diversity and public education are the main functions of botanical gardens. There are more than 3,700 botanical gardens in the world, growing about 1/3 of the world’s higher plants. China has 162 botanical gardens, with about 60% of the country’s higher plants conserved. There are over 100 national botanical gardens in 43 countries and regions around the world.

Conclusions & Suggestions: This paper discusses the relationship between botanical gardens and plant ex situ conservation. On this basis, we put forward the definition and setting standards of national botanical gardens, and then discusses the significance, challenges, coordinating ex situconservation and in situ conservation of the national botanical garden system. Finally, suggestions on the establishment goals, management system, spatial layout and certification of China's national botanical garden system are proposed. We hope this paper would provide new insights into future development of the national botanical garden system in China.

Aims: Convention on Biological Diversity, as an international convention for the protection of biological resources on the earth, is closely related to the construction of ecological civilization and the establishment of a community with a shared future for mankind. Researches on the Convention from different perspectives and analysis of current hot spots and trend related to the biological diversity protection will provide references for the formulation of Framework after 2020 as well as intellectual support for the construction of ecological civilization.
Methods: In this paper, we selected academic periodical literature in CNKI as its research subject, and the CiteSpace software was applied to construct the knowledge mapping so as to further analyze the specific number of published papers, research institutions, authors and research hot spot, and we also explored the current research progress in term of the Convention in China.
Results: (1) Since 1992, published papers on the Convention has risen in waves; (2) Many scholars and institutions have studied on the Convention; (3) According to the analysis on key word frequency, most scholars overwhelmingly focus on the Convention on Biological Diversity, biological diversity, genetic resources and access and benefit sharing. At the same time, the Convention on Biological Diversity, biological diversity, intellectual property, global biodiversity, prior informed consent and maritime community with a shared future form a clustering knowledge mapping.
Conclusion: (1) The knowledge mapping reveals that researches always center on three major objectives of the Convention: Biological Diversity Protection, Continuous Utilization, and Access and Benefit Sharing of Genetic Resources. Meanwhile, keywords analysis shows that current hop spots have extended to various international hot-spot topics including the maritime and high-seas biological diversity protection. (2) With the convening of COP 15, researches on the Convention will be posed with new opportunities and the balanced promotion of three major objectives will play a significant role in executing the Convention, and cross-institution cooperation and in-depth interdisciplinary integration will be the main approaches in the future.

Aims: China is the home to the world’s second-richest flora with approximately 36,000-41,000 species of higher plants. Plant conservation has reached great achievements in the last 40 years, especially with the publications of Regulation on Conservation of Wild Plants of China and the List of National Key Protected Wild Plants. These publications were issued by the central government two decades ago and recently have been amended with updates. Many national nature reserves and botanical gardens have been established to protect the national diversity of plant species, which formalized the in situ and ex situ conservation network. However, there are notable gaps between the conservation needs and the legitimate base in the new era of ecological civilization construction. This review surveys the achievements within botanical conservation and illustrates the gaps in policies and regulations on plant conservation in China. Congruently, we propose suggestions for revising the Regulation on Conservation of Wild Plants of China.
Methods: We summarized the current conservation and management policies on wild plants in China and analyzed the central policies and measures from three facets, e.g., in situ conservation, ex situ conservation, and management on exploitation and utilization. The advantages and disadvantages of these policies and regulations have been analyzed and compared with wild animal management. Furthermore, relevant suggestions to revise the Regulation on Conservation of Wild Plants of China have been provided.
Results: Our analyses indicated the revision of Regulation on Conservation of Wild Plants of China needs to be expedited to enhance in situ and ex situ conservation, including revising the definition of the term “wild plants” and “artificial propagation” to improve the management procedure for exploitation, to enhance the connection between international laws and domestic laws, and to refine the punishment rules.

Background: The establishment of national park system (NPS) is an important content of ecological civilization of China, and is an important measure to realize modernization of governance system and governance capacity in the field of natural and ecological protection. Aiming to obtain practical experience for reform of the NPS, central government of China launched pilot construction of the NPS in 2015.
Progress: For assessing efficiency of pilot reforms in the past five years, we carried out in-depth investigation and research in 10 national parks (NPs). The result showed that: pilot reform of the NPS was reliably and orderly promoted and accumulated a batch of replicable and propagable experience, especially on top design of the NPS, establishment of management mechanism, law and regulations construction, ecological environment protection, strengthening foundation of protection management. However, there was also relative lack of laws, regulations and standards. Management system reform of the NPS did not reach the designated position. It was also lack of monitoring system of ecological environment. Financial support was still not mature, contradictions between natural protection and society development were still obvious.
Perspective:This paper provides relational countermeasure and suggestion for law system construction, deepening the reform of management system, improving the ecological environment supervision mechanism, building diversified funds safeguard mechanism, and promoting to build, to manage and to share the NPs. This paper also provides reference and basis to formally build a batch of NPs, and to preliminary establish the NPS in 2021.

The 18 ^th Conference of the Parties of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was held in Geneva, Switzerland from August 17 to 28, 2019. The Parties discussed 56 proposals for amendment of the Appendix of the Convention and 140 working documents, continuing the trend of the amendment of the Appendix in recent years. However, the trend of including more species in the Appendix slowed down at this Convention. The Parties clarified the annotations, application, interpretation and implementation of the Appendix, established new regulatory resolutions and adopted the CITES Strategic Vision post-2020. At the meeting, China established a positive image as a responsible country that attaches importance to the construction of ecological civilization, and all five proposals for amendments of the CITES Appendix proposed or jointly proposed by China have been adopted by the Parties.

Earth is experiencing its sixth mass extinction, and in response to the severity of accelerated biodiversity loss, the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including Aichi Biodiversity Targets. However, the IPBES global assessment showed that most of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for 2020 will possibly be missed, because of which the IPBES called for transformative changes in nature conservation in its global assessment report. China has made significant progress in biodiversity conservation, put forward with completed eco-civilization system, try to develop a protected area system, stress the importance of biodiversity conservation by inspection and “Green Shield” action. In addition, up to 18% of territory has been designated as protected area. However, biodiversity is still declining at an accelerated rate, more species are threatened. Although a series of reforms to eco-civilization has started the transformative changes, such as mainstreaming biodiversity in central government, managing all the protected areas in one department, emphasizing the importance of biodiversity in national spatial planning and China Ecological Conservation Red Line (ECRL) designation, systematic strategies and actions are still in need for biodiversity conservation. It is important to further implement “mainstreaming” at different levels, establish a systematic legal system and effective conservation mechanism, guarantee enough funds, clarify the status of biodiversity in production and living space, and make ecosystem service possible to become economic benefits. Therefore, it is necessary for China to achieve transformative changes in terms of conservation awareness, spatial planning, and conservation actions by promoting balanced economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological progress. It is possible to mainstream conservation awareness, coordinate between conservation and utilization, and promote citizen-based conservation actions if China combines the forces of law, governance, market, technology, and society. This approach world form an efficient and integrated mechanism to achieve the ideal state of biodiversity conservation, “living in harmony with nature”.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the most important international convention committed to the protection of biodiversity. It is also the most significant platform for China to participate and lead in the construction of a global ecological civilization. As an important entity for enterprises engaging in biodiversity conservation, the CBD has been strengthening efforts to build a consistent international system over the last two decades. The international system consists of two main pillars: (1) Global Partnership on Business and Biodiversity (GPBB mechanism), and (2) Global Platform for Business & Biodiversity (GPBB platform). The GPBB mechanism provides the organization and financial arrangement, while the GPBB platform mainly provides technical and intellectual support. These two pillars complement and provide synergies to one other. By looking into the formation background, development process, current situation and future trends of the GPBB platform, this paper systematically summarizes various resources that have been intentionally made available by the GPBB platform gradually over a long period of time. It also puts forward relevant policy recommendations for China in how to better participate in, contribute to and benefit from the CBD. Since COP-3 in 1996, related concepts, methodologies, and mechanisms have been continuously built up and made publicly available through an online database of the current GPBB platform through the official website of the Convention. These resources can be used by governments and enterprises of all countries, and China should increase its application of the resources available. Based on our research, we came to the following conclusions: (1) Willingness of enterprises to participate in biodiversity conservation and the demand for the GPBB platforms is growing; (2) CBD’s requirements for enterprise participation are explicit; (3) Roadmap on how to promote business engagement in biodiversity protection is straightforward; (4) GPBB mechanism allowing national governments to become members has already been established; and (5) GPBB platform as resource bank has been greatly substantiated. Looking forward to the future, the development of GPBB platforms is expected to continue maintaining the following three momentums: (1) GPBB platform will be continuously improved; (2) The impact will be further strengthened; and (3) More significant sectors will be highlighted. The GPBB platform has provided opportunities for enterprises to implement a range of CBD projects and promoted up-to-date information dissemination on latest research findings, methodology, technical tools, voluntary standards, guidelines, briefings and business best practices. It has also supported inputs and contributions from GPBB members of national governments, corporations, NGOs, academic researchers and other institutional stakeholders. China formally joined the GPBB in 2015 and carried out an in-depth study on GPBB and membership countries. A national initiative of China Business & Biodiversity Partnership (CBBP) is in progress, however in general, there is still much work to do. The paper makes the following suggestions: (1) China should introduce new draft resolutions to further strengthen the international system in COP-15 based on improved policy research; (2) China should be active in and gradually lead the GPBB development; (3) Capacity building in human resources is needed to make the CBBP stand out in the GPBB; and (4) Draw on the GPBB platform to better benefit from and contribute to it.

With increasing international concern for biodiversity and human well-being, land degradation has increasingly become the foci of international conventions and processes. In the 2014-2018 Work Program of Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), “Land degradation and restoration” was included as one of the three major thematic assessment activities. The assessment report was completed by three hundred experts around the world in three years and adopted at the sixth plenary meeting of IPBES in March 2018. This article outlines the main contents and conclusions of the assessment, discusses possible impacts on other international processes, and proposes future work within our country. Based on the conceptual framework of IPBES, the assessment report comprehensively clarified the impact of land degradation on human life quality, the status and progress of land degradation, the role of direct and indirect drivers on land degradation, the relationship between land degradation and human well-being, and proposed suggestions for mitigating land degradation and promoting restoration. The assessment will provide policy makers in various countries with effective technical support for formulating policy tools and scientific references for negotiation of relevant international processes. As a country with rich biodiversity, China should accord importance to IPBES assessment mechanism and actively participate in strengthening the promotion of scientific achievements in the field of conserving biodiversity, initiate assessment on key domestic issues related to biodiversity and ecosystem services in a timely manner, to promote the construction of ecological civilization in our country, adopt a holistic approach to conserving our mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, and grasslands, achieve the construction goal of beautiful China.

The 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China put forward for the first time a new requirement that China should spearhead the construction of ecological civilization on global scale, of which biodiversity protection is an integral part. This paper systematically summarizes the major international experiences in promoting the Global Partnership for Business and Biodiversity (GPBB) advocated by the Convention on Biological Diversity, and gives policy proposals for China to promote the GPBB (or China Business and Biodiversity Partnership, CBBP). By analyzing GPBB practices in Germany, India, Canada, Peru, Australia, South Africa, Japan and South Korea, we find the main experience of these countries as follows: (1) the governments have important and varied roles, including management and providing funds or goods; (2) the patterns of organization are diverse, but usually they set up cross department decision-making bodies and secretarial offices; (3) membership generally requires signing agreements; some agreements focus on specific industries, some accord importance to institutional members; (4) the government generally provides legal and policy interpretation, knowledge and information dissemination, policy guidance and other services; (5) regarding funding, some mainly rely on the collection of membership dues while others rely on donations in kind or voluntary service, and some rely on PPP projects. We also draw the following conclusions: (1) a large number of enterprises are motivated and willing to participate in the Biodiversity Partnership Initiative; (2) the international resource network for promoting enterprise participation has been established; (3) limited by scale and capital, the participation of the vast enterprises requires more guidance and support of government. In 2015, China formally joined the GPBB. Although China has carried out several related activities to promote the GPBB, it still faces many challenges. First of all, the relevant documents have not been approved. Therefore, although many enterprises are willing to partner with China, there is a need to establish rules to follow. Secondly, China has not yet established a sound organizational mode and financial mechanism to promote GPBB. Finally, the 15th conference of the parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) will be held in Beijing in 2020, which creates an urgent need to manage China’s partnership for business and biodiversity. In this regard, this paper suggests that the China Business and Biodiversity Partnership (CBBP) initiative should implement the two step strategy: (1) establish and launch the CBBP alliance initiative, and (2) increase the support of international conventions and state performance negotiations.

The agricultural civilization that originated in the Yangtze River Basin is an important part of Chinese civilization. Being one of the world-famous crop origin centers, the Yangtze River Basin is rich in biodiversity, and has bred many cultivated plants. This review has collected data of crops that originated in the Yangtze River Basin and information of plant remains found in Neolithic archaeological sites. By summarizing the environmental features and tracking the changes of vegetation since the Holocene in the Yangtze River Basin, we attempt to dissect the dynamics of plant use in this area and investigate the relationship between local cultivated plants and biodiversity. Our results indicate the agricultural civilization in the Yangtze River Basin greatly relied on rice production, and domesticated a large amount of fruit and aquatic vegetable crops, which reflects the adaptation and dependence to local subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests and wetlands. When compared to other basins, the Yangtze River Basin is advantageous in allocation of ecological factors, and the characteristic of domesticated crops shows a typical feature of subtropical humid forest vegetation areas. Studying the natural and human factors related to crop domestication can help us to better understand the origin of agriculture civilization in the Yangtze River Basin. This work not only provides a reference for the conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources, but also plays a guiding role in promoting the construction of ecological civilization and sustainable development in the Yangtze River Basin.

The Three-River-Source (TRS) region, which harbors an evolutionarily unique and impressively large portion of plateau biodiversity, is an important national ecological security shelter zone. Acting as the first system pilot in China, the TRS National Park will be turned into both the exhibition of nature conservation and a heritage area of ecological culture on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. To better contribute to the construction of the TRS National Park, we compared the TRS National Park with the TRS and Kekexili Nature Reserves with respect to elevation, annual mean temperature and annual precipitation. By combining the environmental conditions of the occurrences of four species of amphibians and reptiles (i.e., Rana kukunoris, Nanorana pleskei, Scutiger boulengeri, and Phrynocephalus vlangalii) both inside and outside the national park, we explored potential opportunities and challenges for the conservation of poor-dispersal-ability species (including amphibians and reptiles) during construction of the TRS National Park. While the national park and the nature reserves had large overlap in geographical space, the environmental conditions were different between them. The preferred environmental conditions of the four species were mostly not included in the TRS National Park, but were included in the nature reserves. Given the unique geographical location of the TRS region and its sensitivity to climate change, the effective protection of amphibians and reptiles in this region will not only contribute to maintaining genetic diversity of species and the integrality of regional ecosystems, but also will help to achieve the goal of the TRS National Park and assist with the construction of ecological civilization. Thus, within the TRS National Park, to strengthen basic biological research, it is important to conduct long-term monitoring studies of population dynamics and community structure. Based on this, the potential effects of environmental changes on the distribution, genetic diversity, behavior, morphological traits, population dynamics and community of amphibians and reptiles could be understood, with the aim of achieving their sustainable survival within the TRS National Park in the face of global change.

By the end of 2016, China had established approximately 10 types and a large number of natural protected areas since the first nature reserve was established in 1956. With ecological civilization construction, to establish a natural protected areas system based on national parks is not only an important project put forward by the state, but also the inevitable trend for future development. However, problems including ambiguous concepts, confused classification systems, vague dominant functions, and geospatial overlap also accompanied these natural protected areas. There is still no unified classification system that can be applied in all types of natural protected areas in China, this lack of classification system has seriously impeded ongoing optimization and integration of the existing natural protected areas and the construction of a national park system and is not convenient for international academic exchanges. Therefore, defining natural protected areas is urgently needed and is essential for the establishment of a classification system that is applicable to our country and conducive to international communication. Here we mainly discuss the concepts and connotation of natural protected areas in China, tease out their development processes, and summarize the construction and classification of 10 types of natural protected areas, while comparing the similarities and differences of these concepts and classifications. Finally, based on the IUCN protected area management classification system, the natural attribution of protected objects, and social attribution of management objects, we propose three classification systems to provide a reference for establishing a natural protected area classification system and national park system. We hope these systems will play a role in the study of the classification system of natural protected areas in the future.

The Fifteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15) will be hosted by China in 2020 and could become a milestone in the history of the Convention. This article aims to identify lessons that can be learnt by China in preparation for COP15. The internal motivations and political gains of several host countries with respect to previous COPs were analyzed by looking at national environmental foreign policies against the backdrop of the country’s development and corresponding progress made in convention implementation. This case study of successful COPs indicates that host countries do not treat it as an isolated event but an action under the country’s foreign policy strategy, which provides a strong momentum for the country to contribute to the process. Additionally, by formulating host country initiatives in harmony with existing national and regional policies in the field, the host country was able to optimize marginal effects and gains at both the national and global level. China could also make use the opportunity of hosting COP15 to gradually transform its passive and inward-looking eco-environmental foreign policy into an outward-looking one featuring active engagement and work on eco-civilization along with the international community. In preparation for COP15, China should work together with international stakeholders, reinforce regional strategic coordination and synergism with developing countries, and share Chinese experiences in biodiversity conservation in order to contribute to the creation of a fair, rational, and efficient system of global biodiversity governance.

The important roles of soil fauna diversity and associated indicative functions of environment changes have received increasing attention from both academic circles and government decision makers. This paper summarizes the current situation of soil fauna monitoring in developed countries and related work in China. We introduce the objectives and structure of the thematic monitoring network of soil fauna diversity (TMNSFD), and highlighted some aspects that need attention. The TMNSFD proposed to establish permanent monitoring plots within forest plots established by Chinese Forest Biodiversity Monitoring Network for monitoring soil fauna including earthworms, mites, springtails, nematodes and protists. During the years 2016-2020, TMNSFD may choose typical forest ecosystems as priority ecosystems for soil fauna monitoring, which cover temperate forest ecosystems (including broadleaved Korean pine mixed forests in Changbaishan, Jilin Province and warm temperate deciduous broadleaved forests in Donglingshan, Beijing), subtropical forest ecosystems (including typical subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests in Gutianshan, Zhejiang Province, lower subtropical evergreen broadleaved forests in Dinghushan, Guangdong Province, and north subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in Dujiangyan, Sichuan Province), tropical forest ecosystems (tropical rainforests in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province and Jianfengling, Hainan Province), as well as mountainous dark coniferous forests in Liziping, Sichuan Province. By 2030, TMNSFD soil fauna monitoring plots may cover various ecosystems including forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, farmland, urban areas and other typical ecosystems in different regions of China. TMNSFD emphasizes the value of applied molecular biology technology, unified monitoring methods, and manipulation experiments to simulate the effects of global change on soil fauna during the processes of monitoring. We propose monitoring soil fauna diversity once every 5 years in established monitoring plots. The objective of TMNSFD is to provide reliable and integrated data of soil fauna diversity via the establishment of standard monitoring methods and a data-sharing network at the national level, which could support the development of ecological civilization in China.

The dry valleys of Southwest China specifically refer to a type of azonal landscape distributed in the large river basins of the Hengduan Mountain ranges, and are the outcome of the effects of the monsoon climate, ridge-valley geomorphology, and long-term human perturbations. The dry valley landscape is characterized by prominent seasonal aridity, a vertical climate gradient, rich flora of high endemism, and unique vegetation types well adapted to the distinct environment. The environmental change in the last decades is characterized by consistent climate warming and widespread anthropogenic disturbances, especially land use/land cover changes mainly driven by road building, hydro-power construction, mining, and urbanization. These human disturbances intensified vegetation fragmentation, soil erosion, habitat degradation and biological invasion. Environmental degradation has threatened biodiversity resources and ecosystem security while the conservation measures for this unique ecosystem are lacking. We appeal for attention and timely action of biodiversity conservation in the dry valleys of Southwest China by means of establishing natural reserves. Meanwhile, contingent planning for vertical agriculture, degraded vegetation restoration, utilization program for the unique species resource and ecotourism are critical maintaining the sustainability of the dry valley ecosystems. Moreover, the policy and strategy under the goal of ecological civilization construction are also important tools to be applied in promoting ecosystem services and ecological security in the dry valleys of Southwest China.

Ecological protection redline delineation aims to protect the natural ecological systems, which support human economic and social sustainable development, and constantly improve ecosystem services through the implementation of strict control measures. Based on the Environmental Protection Law, and related research and practices in China, we make the concept of ecological protection redlines clear, and present potential formation (including key ecological function areas redlines, ecologically sensitive or fragile areas redlines and forbidden development areas redlines). Furthermore, we confirm concrete forms of all kinds of redlines. Key ecological function area redlines are divided into land functional areas (including water source conservation areas, water and soil conservation areas, windbreak and sand-fixation areas and biodiversity maintenance areas) and ocean functional areas (including marine aquatic germplasm resources areas, important coastal wetlands, special protection islands, concentrated distribution area of rare and endangered species, important fishing waters, etc.), ecological sensitive or fragile areas redlines (divided into land ecological sensitive or fragile areas, including land desertification area, soil and water losses areas , rocky desertification areas and soil salinization areas and ocean ecological sensitive or fragile areas, including coastal natural coastline, mangrove forest, important estuarine, important sandpaper coast, sand protection waters, coral reef, sea grass beds, etc.), while forbidden development areas contain nature reserves, world cultural and natural heritage sites, landscape resorts, forest parks, geological parks, wetland parks, drinking water source areas, etc. Based on the latest national regulations for ecological protection and management of redlines, we propose ideas and measures of level delineation and classification management. According to the grading management regarding ecological function protection, this could determine specific control measures, in order to provide scientific support for strengthening ecological protection, optimizing national spatial development pattern, and promoting the construction of ecological civilization.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of the three major environmental conventions. During the continuous process of CBD negotiation, Business and Biodiversity has gradually become an important issue for CBD. The concept was developed for the first time during the third meeting of the conference of the Parties (COP-3) to CBD in 1996. At COP-5, business participation was proposed as one of the issues of CBD. At COP-6, the issue of business participation was incorporated into the Global Strategy of CBD. At COP-8, this issue was included in CBD COP decisions for the first time, with new measures proposed to promote the private sector in biodiversity conservation. The Framework of Priority Actions on Business (2008-2010) was drawn up at COP-9. The CBD decided to launch a forum for business participation in biodiversity conservation. Thus far, the Convention Secretariat has organized four meetings for Global Partnership for Business and Biodiversity (GPBB), where issues of business participation in biodiversity are exchanged and discussed. In China, this is a new topic of current biodiversity governance work. The Chinese government has paid much attention to the issue and sent the Chinese Business and Biodiversity delegation to participate in the GPBB-3 and GPBB-4. Therefore, considering the status of the economy and biodiversity conservation in China, we should actively participate in the GPBB, to strengthen technology research, develop relevant standards and guidelines of business and biodiversity, deepen platform construction, and establish coordination mechanisms for business and biodiversity across sectors.

The genus Caragana has very important cultural value in addition to its significance in both ecology and landscape. The ethnoecological study revealed that Mongolian ecological culture can accurately reflect the cultural, ecological and resource value of Caragana. Firstly, except for the original Mongolian name “Haragana” for this genus, the blending “Altagana” from the Mongolian adjective “Altan (meaning golden)” and Mongolian noun “Haragana” also contributes a lot to the development of modern plant science. Secondly, different thicketizationgrasslands in either the steppe zone or the desert zone constructed or dominated by Caragana microphylla, C.liouana, C.tibetica, C.stenophylla or C.korshinskii are the very pastures for the Mongolian nationality to herd with seasons or with different livestock in accordance with the geomorphic characteristics, grassland characteristics or feeding habits of livestock. This has also become the cultural and scientific foundation for the establishment of the grazing system unit centralized by rotational grazing. Thirdly, the folk songs of Mongolian nationality which speak highly of sandfixing and windpreventing function of Caragana can reflect the Mongolian’s correct understanding of the ecological principles of biological sand fixation. They are also the authentic cultural materials of the construction of the ecological civilization in the steppe zone or the desert zone in China.