To investigate the butterfly diversity in Chongqing Municipality, we selected five sampling sections along a gradient of urbanization from Shaping District to Beibei District, namely Shaping Park, Nanxikou, Huitoupo, Jigong Mountain, and Jinyun Mountain. A total of 4,802 butterfly individuals were collected, belonging to 11 families and 41 genera. Of these, the dominant species are Pieris canidia, P. rapae, and Pseudozizeeria maha, while common species are Graphium sarpedon, Eurema hecabe, Lethe syrcis, Polygonia caureum, Tongeia filicaudis, and Parnara guttata. The diversity indexes ranked in the following order：Jinyun Moun-tain>Huitoupo>Jigong Mountain>Nanxikou>Shaping Park. It is concluded that butterfly diversity, which is the highest in Jinyun Mountain and lowest in Shaping Park, increases with vegetation richness, vegetation coverage, and sunlight. Being significantly impacted by urbanization, butterfly diversity can serve as an effective indicator of urban environmental quality and change.

As one of the five major global environmental problems, invasive species have posed serious threats to native ecosystems, public health, and regional economies. Although much progress has been made in the field of biological invasions research in China over the last decade, there are still large knowledge gaps. This paper reviews progress in the field of biological invasions research since 2000 as it relates to China, covering the diversity, colonization and immigration patterns of invasive species, mechanisms and ecological effects of biological invasions, and management and control of invasive species. In China, 529 invasive alien species have been identified, which originated primarily from South and North America, and the major taxa included terrestrial plants, terrestrial invertebrates, and microorganisms. We found a higher prevalence of invasive species in the eastern and southern provinces, compared to the western and northern provinces in China. This pattern is likely due to the differences in the level of economic development and environmental suitability between the two regions. Moreover, with further economic development, China may face more serious biological invasions in the future. These invasions of alien species are largely the combined results of the interactions between the intrinsic traits of these species along with resource opportunities and disturbances by human beings. Many mechanisms are responsible for successful invasions of alien species, but phenotypic plasticity, adaptive evolution, enemy release, interspecific mutualism or commensalism, and new allelochemicals may be primary causative factors. Biological invasions in China have caused serious impacts on native ecosystems, including biodiversity and ecosystem services, alteration of biogeochemical cycles, threats to agricultural and forestry production, traffic and shipping, environmental safety, and public facilities. China has also made progress in the detection and monitoring of invasive species, risk analysis, biological control, radical elimination, and ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems. We suggest several issues that need to be addressed in invasive species research in the future, including territory-wide inventories, evolutionary ecology and genomics, direct and indirect ecosystem-level consequences, interactions between major components of global change and biological invasions, and management and control technologies.

Kadoorie Farm and Botanical Garden is located in the New Territories, on the mainland of Hong Kong. During 1990-1995 impact flight (IM) and ultraviolet light (UV) traps were set for several consecutive periods to study abundance, diversity, and phenology of the Class Insecta. We report here these features for the Order Coleoptera and some major beetle families, and compare variation in these features for beetles between IM and UV traps. About 13 000 specimens were collected belonging to 45 families (subfamilies) and 231 species. About 25% of these families are recorded from Hong Kong for the first time: Alleculidae, Biphyllidae, Byrrhidae, Colydiidae, Corylophidae, Cryptophagidae, Hydroscaphidae, Lagriidae, Lathridiidae, Limnichidae, and Zopheridae.Most of the beetles collected in the secondary forest are woodborers both in number and kind (either xylophagous or saprophytophagous), in contrast with the majority of phytophagous beetles collected by sweep nets in a nature reserve across the border in nearby mainland China. The Margalef (1958) richness index indicates that Mordellidae, Coccinellidae, Curculionidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae, Elateridae, Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Corylophidae, Buprestidae, Nitidulidae, Scolytidae, and Tenebrionidae are the richest families in species in decreasing order (d>1.5). The ShannonWiener (1949) diversity index indicates that Mordellidae, Coccinellidae, Curculionidae, Staphylinidae, Elateridae, Chrysomelidae, Cerambycidae, Carabidae, Nitidulidae, and Buprestidae are the most diverse families in decreasing order (H′>1.5). The Pielou (1975) evenness index indicates that Mordellidae, Coccinellidae, Curculionidae, Staphylinidae, Elateridae, Chrysomelidae, and Cerambycidae are the most balanced families in diversity and abundance in decreasing order (J>0.3). The BergerParker (1970) dominance index indicates that Scolytidae, Cerambycidae, Bostrichidae, Scarabaeidae, and Curculionidae are the most abundant families in number of individuals in decreasing order (D>1.5%). Overall, Cerambycidae, Coccinellidae, Curculionidae, Mordellidae, Scarabaeidae, and Scolytidae are the major families in the secondary forest with number of species 15 or number of individuals 200. Over 85% of all specimens were bark beetles during the study period, suggesting an outbreak of Scolytidae in the secondary forest.Seasonal patterns of the Coleoptera are conspicuous. Abundance of beetles began to increase in February and drastically decreased in August, but peak occurrence differed between IM and UV traps. Those caught by UV had a distinct peak in June, while those caught by IM peaked in July. Beetles in each of the major families also showed different seasonal patterns of abundance.Families with one single species comprise over 50% of the beetle families. Captures by different traps are often mutually exclusive. About 30% of the beetle families were caught by only IM traps, while 10% were caught by only UV traps. Of the remaining 26 families, 11 had at least one species that was mutually exclusively captured by different traps. In total, 65% of the 45 families contained species trapped by one method but not by the other. Scolytidae had the greatest abundance in both IM and UV traps. Mordellidae had the highest species diversity in IM traps, while Coccinellidae had the highest species diversity in UV traps based on the richness, diversity, and evenness indices. The value (1.67) of the ShannonWiener index for the order Coleoptera is within the normal range, but lower than the neighboring area where beetle specimens were collected by sweep nets.IM captures overwhelmingly outnumbered UV captures. This could be the result of more IM traps and longer operating periods than UV traps. However, the values of the ShannonWiener diversity and Pielou evenness indices are about 85% and 120% higher for UV than IM traps, respectively. This indicates that it is important to use different trapping meth

Foraging behavior of pollinating insects can directly influence plant–pollinator interactions in many aspects, thus studies on pollinator behavior are important for understanding plant diversity and ecological processes of plant reproduction. In this paper, we describe the characteristics of major pollinating insects and discuss the methods for studying foraging behavior of pollinating insects and factors potentially influencing pollinator behaviors. We also suggest some practical methods for studying the roles of nocturnal pollinators and how to conduct studies of insect foraging behaviors at community level. The purpose of this introduction is to provide some useful information for future studies on this multidisciplinary research in China, particularly for botanists and entomologists.

Mutualism is a relationship between individuals of different species that benefits all the partners. However, this interaction may also be described as mutual exploitation. The “host sanctions effect” predicts that the hosts punish partners that cheat by receiving benefits without paying for them. Fig trees (Ficus) and their fig-pollinating wasps (Agaonidae) constitute a mutualistic system with a mainly one-to-one relationship. In order to test if there exists the “host sanctions effect”, we carried out a study at Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Yunnan Province on the monoecious fig tree Ficus benjamina, which is actively pollinated by Eupristina koningsbergeri. We produced two groups of pollinating wasps, either carrying pollen or not, and introduced one or two foundress wasps from each group into single figs. Figs entered by no wasps aborted rapidly, but almost all figs entered by wasps completed their development normally, except a few entered by a single pollen-free wasp. However, pollen-loaded foundresses produced significantly larger broods than foundresses without pollen. This effect was particularly marked in figs containing two foundresses. Our results show that active pollination is not essential for the reproduction of the pollinator, but does improve its reproductive success. This suggests that a sanctions effect is operating.

Ficus are species-specifically pollinated by Chalcidoid wasps (Agaonidae). Each monoecious fig species shelters a wasp community of pollinator and nonpollinators. Ficus benjamina is a monoecious tree worldwide cultivated for ornamental purposes, but the fig wasp community inside the syconium of this spe-cies is still little known. In order to study the fig wasp community structure of F. benjamina in different habitats, we collected 180 syconia from three different study sites distinct in plant coverage and disturbance level in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan. In all syconia, 49,149 specimens were collected, consisting of 13 species of fig wasps from 8 genera of Chaleidoidae. Eupristina koningsbergeri was the pollinator, whereas the others were nonpollinators. The species diversity and abundance of the fig wasp community were significantly dif-ferent in the three study sites, and were significantly higher in the site with high plant coverage and relatively little disturbance. This result indicates that nonpollinators are inclined to oviposit in flowers of F. benjamina in habitats with high plant coverage and relatively little disturbance. The data also suggest that the correlation between pollinator and nonpollinators inside the syconium is significantly negative.

Self-incompatibility occurs widely in the Solanaceae, but a few species in this family, or a few intraspecific populations or a few individuals within the populations are highly self-compatible and their breeding systems have evolved from outcrossing to selfing. We studied pollination biology of Anisodus tanguticus from this family, a perennial endemic to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. This species flowers in the early summer and probably suffers from the serious limitations of the outcrossing pollinator. We aimed to test whether the breeding systems of a few individuals in this species have shifted from outcrossing to selfing. Our experiments and observations were conducted in two populations with different altitudes. Most flowers of this species were incompletely protogynous, and the mean distance between the stigma and anthers decreased gradually with floral longevity. Both stigma and anthers did not come into touch when the corolla wilted in most of the monitored flowers and such herkogamy favours outcrossing. However, the complete contact of stigma and anthers in 4.9% of the measured flowers suggested potential occurrence of “autonomous selfing” in these flowers. Most of the examined individuals in both populations are self-incompatible and have to depend on insects for pollination. However, a few of them were found to be self-compatible. Flies were the effective outcrossing pollinators in the high altitude population and “autonomous selfing” was detected in a few individuals of this population. In contrast, the effective outcrossing pollinators were rarely observed in the low altitude population and the dominant visitors or pollinators, ants in this population, transferred pollen within the single flower, which finally resulted in “facilitated selfing”. Pollination limita-tions were obvious in both populations due to the lack of enough outcrossing pollinators. Two different self-ing mechanisms, uncovered here, may provide a partial compensation for the natural reproduction of this al-pine species in the arid alpine habitats when flowering at the early summer.

The species composition and diversity of bees in eight different habitats of the tropical forest region in Xishuangbanna were studied. 77 species , belonging to five families and 20 genera , were recognized. The diversity measurements of bees in different habitats showed that values of species richness indexes D_MA range from 11914 to 71877 , species diversity indexes H′range from 01608 to 11398 , and evenness indexes J_sw range from 01716 to 019561 Based on similarity coefficients C in table 3 , eight habitats can be clustered at the level of 01169 with the systematic clustering. Holy Hills of Dai nationality play a limited role in the conservation of bee species in rain forest , which is affected by the decreasing areas of Holy Hills and human disturbance. If the tropical rain forest is exploited for cultivation , many species of bees in the rain forest will disappear and will be substituted by some species of relatively extensive distribution. Number of species will be significantly decreased.

Rapid worldwide urbanization during the last century has led to more than half the world’s population living in urban regions. Studies of how urbanization affects insect diversity have focused on the following: insect abundance, distribution, extinction, food habits and ecosystem services. Native insect populations have declined greatly in urban areas, where studies of their spatial distribution have revealed that abundance decreases along what is termed the rural-city center gradient (RCG), many native insects even extinct with urbanization process. Most specialist insect communities have declined in abundance due to urbanization, while some generalist species, such as aphids, cockroaches and termites, have increased slightly in abundance. It is also the case that herbivorous, parasitic, saprophagous and flower-visiting insects are much more negatively influenced by urbanization than predator insects. This has a significant effect on the ecosystem services of insects. The decline of many insects due to urbanization can be attributed to environmental pollution (including air pollution, water pollution, light pollution, and heat pollution), habitat fragmentation, road hardening, clustering of buildings, and occurrence of introduced invasive species. As urbanization continues, measures should be taken to protect insects in urban areas. This will entail improving basic scientific research on the problem, construction of suitable habitats, and informing the general public of the benefits of environmental protection.

As a large group of Hemiptera, aphids are distributed worldwide, and most of them are pests. In China, aphid fauna of many areas, such as northwestern China, have been systemically studied. Hong Kong is an exception. Based on literature and specimens from the British Natural History Museum and the Institute of Zoology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, we studied the species diversity of aphids in Hong Kong. The results showed that 70 species, 44 genera and 7 families of aphids are found in Hong Kong, accounting for 6.83%, 16.60%, and 53.85% of known aphid species, genera and families in China, respectively. There are six endemic species in Hong Kong. Hong Kong belongs to the Oriental faunal region, and Hong Kong’s aphid species mainly consist of Oriental, Palaearctic-Oriental, and Australian-Oriental components. The host plants of aphids include 58 genera in 30 families, among which Gramineae, Moraceae, and Lauraceae have the highest aphid diversity. Of the aphids, Aphididae has the most host plants, while Hormaphididae and Drepanosiphidae rank second and the third respectively. In general, although Hong Kong covers a small area of China, its diverse landforms, suitable climate and abundant vegetation provide many niches for aphids, which results in the rich diversity of aphids.

Figs (Ficus, Moraceae) constitute one of the greatest genera of flowering plants with ca. 750 species worldwide. Figs and fig wasps form an obligate specific mutualism, which is treated as the model system to study comparative biology of mutualism and co-evolution. This extraordinary system has received increasing attention because of its specificity and the development of the molecular technologies, although the phylogenetic reconstruction of both partners began in the 1990’s. In this paper, we summarized the research on phylogenetic relationships and fig-fig wasp co-evolution. We also analyzed interrelated researches in China and the future developing trends in research on this mutualism.

Crocus alatavicus, a geophytic-geocarpic plant, is an early spring ephemeral species that grows in subalpine areas of the western Tianshan Mountains. To understand the ecological significance of geocarpy in plants, we studied the breeding system and pollination biology of C. alatavicus, with special reference to its adaptive strategies for a subalpine existence. We found that C. alatavicus is hysteranthous and its flowering pattern was explosive at the population level. It began to flower in early- to mid-April, and the white flowers had neither nectar nor scent. The inferior ovary was below ground at anthesis, while the other floral parts were aboveground. The flowers were open during the day and closed at night, and individual flower duration was 6-9 days. Pollen viability was 75.39±5.69% at the end of anthesis, and stigma receptivity lasted eight days. Results of artificial pollination experiments suggested that the breeding system ofC. alatavicusis facultative xenogamy with the ability to self-pollinate spontaneously. Crocus alatavicushas a generalist pollination system, with Bombus lucorum, Anthophora senilis and Andrena capillosa being effective pollinators. These insects initiated pollination while foraging for pollen, and their visitation frequencies were 0.50±0.27, 0.18±0.08 and 0.13±0.05 per flower per hour, respectively. Thus,C. alatavicusnot only has evolved unique flowering pattern and generalist pollination system, but also utilizes an otherwise vacant niche in the early spring to improve the effectiveness of pollination. Furthermore, characteristics of its breeding system, such as self-compatibility and spontaneous self-pollination, ensure reproductive success even when pollinators are scarce and pollinator visitation frequencies are low in early spring.

The majority of flowering plants and crops rely in whole or part on animals for pollination. The mutualism between plants and pollinators has attracted ecologists and evolutionists to use this type of interspecific interaction as a model system to study species adaptation and diversification since Charles Darwin. Recent debate on the nature of pollination systems call for studies of this interaction at different levels, ranging from single species to entire communities in a given area. At the species level, detailed studies suggest that floral traits are under selection from mutualists and antagonists as well as the physical environment. In contrast, studies at community-level are rare, but recent analyses indicate considerable spatial and temporal variation in both generalized and specialized pollination systems. This special issue of Biodiversity Science focuses on plant-pollinator interaction, presenting current research status in this area from China. Papers include floral traits and pollinator behaviors addressed by phenotypic manipulation, estimates of pollen removal and receipt, anatomy of flowers, histochemistry analysis and spatial and temporal comparison. The taxa being investigated include wild orchid and cultivated legume, endemic, endangered and invasive species with diverse sexual systems. These thirteen experimental studies and three reviews show the development of pollination biology in China and expose how to facilitate our understanding of the critical ecological proc-esses underlying interspecific interaction in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.

In order to understand the relationship between soil arthropod community structure and floor litter at different successional stages of tropical forests, we surveyed the floor litter and the soil arthropods in a 23-year secondary forest, a 35-year secondary forest and a primary seasonal rainforest of Xishuangbanna, SW China in September 2001. Soil arthropods were extracted from the litter by Tullgren funnel method. The results showed that both the quantity and quality (N and C/N) of litter in the 35-year secondary forest were higher than those of the 23-year secondary forest and the seasonal rainforest. Acari and Collembola were dominant groups (> 80%), while ants, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Archaeognatha were common groups in the three forests. A higher individual density and relative individual density of soil arthropods were found in the 35-year secondary forest (10,067 ind./m2 and 22.72 ind./g dry litter) compared to the seasonal rainforest (5,654 ind./m2 and 18.44 ind./g dry litter) and 23-year secondary forest (2,881 ind./m2 and 5,818 ind./g dry litter). Pielou and Shannon-Wiener index of soil arthropod community were significantly higher in the 23-year secondary forest, while the richness (Margalef index) peaked in seasonal rainforest, and the domi-nance index (Simpson index) in 35-year secondary forest was the highest. The soil arthropod community composition was similar among the three forests. The individual density (ind./m2) of soil arthropods were positively correlated with floor litter mass in three forests, and they were correlated with the standing stock of N of the floor litter in 23-year secondary forest, and the standing stock of N of the floor woody detritus in seasonal rainforest. We conclude that the development of soil arthropod community in tropical forests is closely related to vegetation succession, and the soil arthropod community structure can be regulated through plant litter during the forest succession process, but other environmental effects including predator effect and human disturbance should not be ignored.

Hymenoptera of the family Agaonidae (fig wasps) are the obligate pollinating insects of fig trees (Ficus spp.), and fig syconium is the only host of fig wasp. For the pollination of their flowers, fig trees are dependent upon fig wasps. For their reproduction and growth, fig wasps are dependent upon the gall (ovaries) of the figs, in which their larvae develop. Thus, the two groups share a symbiotic relationship. Species diversity and richness of fig and fig wasp are highest in Yunnan among all the provinces of China. Our study shows that the fig wasps collected from Yunnan include 50 species of 12 genera, which are mainly distributed in the tropics and south sub-tropics below an altitude of 1600 m. Both figs and fig wasps decrease in species number with increasing altitude. Above an altitude of 3700 m, no natural fig tress were found, except for cultivated species. Species diversity increased in the following order: northwestern Yunnan (H′= 0.6902), northeastern Yunnan (H′= 0.6976), central Yunnan (H′= 0.9211), southeastern Yunnan (H′=1.2164), western Yunnan (H′=1.5017), and southern Yunnan (H′=1.6441).

We studied the species diversity of Curculionidae in seasonal rain forest，mountain rain forest，semi-evergreen monsoon forest，deciduous monsoon forest，karst monsoon forest，monsoon evergreen broad-leaf forest，warm deciduous broad-leaf forest，warm pine forest, and hot bamboo forest in Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, Yunnan. A total of 853 weevils were captured by shaking-off collection, be-longing to 96 species, 52 genera, and 18 subfamilies. Among the subfamilies, Cryptorrhychinae, Otior-rhynchinae, Rhynchaeninae, Tychiinae, Curculioninae, Barinae, and Conoderinae contributed more than five species. Cryptorrhychinae, the most abundant subfamily, was represented by 21 species occupying 21.9% of the total. Rhynchaeninae, Curculioninae, Cryptorrhychinae, Otiorrhynchinae, Anthonomnae, Conoderinae, Barinae, Tychiinae, and Cioninae were represented by more than 10 weevil individuals, of which Rhyn-chaeninae had 394，comprising 46.2% of the total number. The greatest densities of individuals occurred in the warm deciduous broad-leaf forest and the seasonal rain forest, while relatively less occurred in the de-ciduous monsoon forest and the semi-evergreen monsoon forest. Every weevil community in the nine vegeta-tion subtypes had its own stenoecious and rare species. Seasonal rain forest was the richest in stenoecious and rare species, while semi-evergreen monsoon forest ranked second. Considering species richness, seasonal rain forest was the richest, whereas warm deciduous broad-leaf forest was the poorest. The weevil communi-ties in the nine vegetation subtypes are very dissimilar. More attention should be paid to seasonal rain forest and semi-evergreen monsoon forest for their important roles in biodiversity conservation.

Mutualism, or a mutually beneficial interaction between two organisms, are ubiquitous in ecological systems. However, some “empty flowers”, which offer pollinators no any kinds of rewards, design different strategies to attract pollinators without providing rewards to the pollinators. These pollination mechanisms are called deceptive pollination. The family Orchidaceae, representing one of the largest groups in angiosperms, is distinguished by high floral diversity and intricate adaptations to pollinators. Darwin described and identified most of the functional floral morphology and biomechanics in orchid pollination. However, he never recognized that many of the flowers that he examined lacked food rewards for pollinators. Floral evolution in the Orchidaceae appears to be dominated by modes of deceptive pollination, and more than one third of orchid species are thought to be pollinated by deceit. Deceptive pollination is thought to be one of key roles which has lead to relatively high species diversity within the Orchidaceae. Deceptive orchids frequently exploit the food foraging, sexual, oviposition and sleep/warmth behaviors of insects. The most common deception mechanisms include generalized food deception, Batesian floral mimicry, sexual deception, brood-site imitation and shelter imitation. Additionally, floral color, morphology and fragrance play key roles to cheat target pollinators. Relationships between deceptive orchids and their pollinators possibly involve asynchronous evolution; therefore orchids track the diversification of their pollinators. However, deception has negative impacts on the pollinators, which may exert selection on the pollinators. Because duped pollinators tend to avoid rewardless flowers, deceptive orchids suffer low visitation rates and fruit set, various environment factors can affect the reproductive success of these orchids. Deceptive orchids depend largely on insect pollinators for reproduction, and the proclivity of these species to use deceptive pollination strategies puts many of these species at a relatively higher rate of extinction. Therefore, pollination biology studies are needed to provide a scientific basis for proper conservation of orchids. At the community level, co-occurring mimic, non-mimic, and mimic signal providing plant species affect the reproductive fitness of orchids. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the co-evolution webs of deceptive orchids and pollinators along with other related biological and ecological factors.

In agro-ecosystems, habitat loss and fragmentation may alter insect assemblages such as ladybug beetles and aphids, potentially affecting important ecological interactions. We used an experimental model system (EMS) with multiple micro-landscapes in which the habitat loss and habitat fragmentation impacts were distinguishable to test the following hypotheses: (1) Habitat removal results in short-term increases in population density in remaining habitat patches (crowding effect); (2) For the same total habitat area on a landscape, insect density will be higher in landscapes with more but smaller patches and more habitat edge than in less fragmented landscapes; (3) This positive effect of fragmentation on density is larger in landscapes with small inter-patch distances, and these last two effects on colonization should be reduced or disappear over time following habitat removal. This EMS included 18 fragmented and 18 clumped experimental plots. Alfalfa was cut to 1 m×1 m patches in fragmented plots (H=1) and retained the whole patches in continual plots (H=0). Habitat loss was designed to 90%, 80%, 70%, 50%, 20% and 0% respectively. Every plot was 3 times replicated and 0% of habitat loss was CK. Net sweeping, barber traps and clapper boards were used to investigate insect species in experimental alfalfa landscapes. 38 species were divided into 4 groups and diversity and abundance of every group were caculated and the relationship between diversity and habitat loss was analyzed. In our EMS, there was little support for the threshold phenomenon or for general effects of habitat loss and fragmentation, although this conclusion needs to be tempered by the limited duration of the experiment. We observed no threshold in species loss after habitat fragmentation and habitat loss in experimental alfalfa landscapes. The species number in fragmented habitat was higher than that in continual habitat under the same degree of habitat loss. Insect abundance was lower in micro-landscapes with 80-90% habitat loss than in CK. As for species, individuals in fragmented habitat were higher than that in continual habitat under the same degree of habitat loss. Insect diversity did not differ among variously treated micro-landscapes. It appears that insect colonization is low in micro-landscapes with 80-90% habitat loss; species richness, abundance and diversity were all significantly lower than that in CK, especially in fragmented habitats. Herbivorous species appear to colonize more rapidly than predatory species after habitat fragmentation and loss in experimental alfalfa landscapes. Our results did not support our first, but provided some support for the other two hypotheses. We suggest that fragmentation decreased the rate of immigration to patches, resulting in lower population densities in more fragmented landscapes. These results could be used to guide spatial and temporal aspects of the design of agricultural systems in order to enhance natural predator populations in agricultural landscapes and suppress pest population to the greatest extent.

In order to examine the effects of the invasive plant Spartina alterniflora on insect diversity in Jiuduansha wetlands in the Yangtze River Estuary, we surveyed insects in monoculture stands of three species by net-sweeping and plant-harvesting methods from May 2004 to October 2005. A total of 11,300 insects were collected, belonging to 12 orders, 69 families and 97 species. We found that species number and Shan-non-Wiener index of the insect community in Spartina alterniflora monoculture were significantly lower than those in the two native monocultures (Phragmites australis and Scirpus mariqueter). However, Simp-son’s dominance index was higher in Spartina alterniflora monoculture. Cluster analysis indicated that, for both survey methods, the similarity of insect communities between Phragmites australis and Scirpus mari-queter was higher than that between Spartina alterniflora and the two native communities. We conclude that invasions of Spartina alterniflora might lead to reduction of insect diversity and alteration of insect commu-nity structure in Jiuduansha wetlands.

In order to probe into the dynamics of butterfly species and quantities in different habitats at high elevation, from 1993 to 1997, we surveyed butterfly diversity in four habitat types at the Huzhu Northern Mountain National Forest Park, Qinghai. We selected a plain among valleys, a temperate steppe, a mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest, and an alpine shrub meadow as our study sites. We trapped 4,745 butterflies, belonging to eight families, 57 genera and 86 species. The genera with the most abundant species included Colias (6 species), Pieris (5 species), Aporia (4 species), Pontia (3 species), and Melitaea (3 species). The most individual number occurred in the families Pieridae and Lycaenidae. In terms of butterfly species composition and quantities, significant differences existed among different habitats. The number of butterfly species was the largest in the mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest, while the individual number peaked in the plain among valleys. The species diversity of butterflies was highest in the mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest and the lowest in alpine shrub meadow, while the evenness index was highest in mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest and lowest in the plain among valleys. Dominance was the highest in the alpine shrub meadow. The mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest had the most endemic genera/species (20 genera, 24 species), followed by the alpine shrub meadow (8 genera, 8 species), the plain among valleys (6 genera, 7 species), and the temperate steppe (5 genera, 6 species). The similarity coefficients of butterfly species among different habitats ranged from 0 to 0.4259. Using cluster analysis to identify the species composition of butterflies, we discovered that the plain among valleys had the highest similarity with the temper-ate steppe, and secondarily with the mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest, and third with the alpine shrub meadow. In order to protect the butterfly diversity of this area, we suggest establishing a natural protected zone to better balance tourism and biodiversity protection.

In order to inquire into the basic rules of the species richness and fauna of fleas along latitudinal gradient and the main ecological factors affecting their distribution, 153 flea species, belonging to 45 genera and 9 families, were collected in mountainous areas at northern latitudes from 21° to 28° in the Hengduan Mountains of western Yunnan, China. All the data were analyzed synthetically with statistics. The results showed that: (1) The richness of flea families, genera, species, endemic species, ratios of endemic species and species of different faunal realms increased first and then decreased with increasing latitude, peaking at 25° to 27°N. The unimodal pattern may be the result of an edge effect between two faunal regions. (2) The horizontal patterns of Oriental and Palaearctic elements were significantly different. A gradually decreasing tendency appeared in Oriental elements with increasing latitude, whereas there was an increasing tendency in Palaearctic. The transitional zone of the two realms ranged from 23º to 29º N and formed an overlap zone and divergence center at 25º to 27ºN. (3) Three main ecological types were identified in the Hengduan Mountains based on cluster analysis. The results reflected the influence of latitude, climate and vegetation on species distribution and community compositions, and also the concordance of flea species distribution and latitu-dinal gradient. (4) The horizontal distribution of β diversity showed two peaks, indicating the transition and transformation of flea species composition and distribution along different gradients, and thus was associated with climate and environmental change. (5) The horizontal patterns of species richness and fauna were simi-lar to the vertical pattern in the Hengduan Mountains. (6) The zones from 25º to 27ºN were the center of dif-ferentiation and overlap of the two realms. Because of the edge effect and complex landscape, the families, genera, species and endemic species of fleas here all showed high diversity, suggesting that this may be the core areas for diversity conservation, distribution and differentiation in China. We conclude that the main factors affecting flea diversity in the Hengduan Mountains are the edge effect in this transitional area of fauna and flora, and heterogeneity of climate, geographical condition and vegetation.

In 2008, an ice storm caused extensive damage to the montane evergreen broadleaved forest in Chebaling National Nature Reserve, Guangdong Province, China. To assess the response of soil arthropod diversity and distribution to a gradient of canopy openness following the ice storm, 17 plots, each 400 m², were selected within a 2-ha permanent plot. Canopy openness was estimated with hemispherical photography in each plot. We sampled the litter layer and two soil layers (0-10 cm and 10-20 cm) to measure arthropod diversity and soil properties. We used two-way cluster analysis to group sites based on arthropod abundance in the litter layer. We also utilized canonical correspondence analysis to reveal relationships between soil arthropods in the 0-10 cm layer and four environmental variables, i.e., canopy openness (CO), soil organic matter (SOM), electric conductivity (EC), and natural moisture content (NMC). Results showed that abundance, richness and diversity of arthropod communities decreased with depth. A negative association was found between canopy openness and the number of arthropod groups in the litter layer; some arthropod taxa, such as the Oribatida, Prostigmata and Mesostigmata, were found in a wide range of light conditions, whereas the Hymenoptera, Symphyla, Pseudoscorpiones and Lepidoptera larvae may be photophobic. The distribution of arthropods in the 0-10 cm soil layer was closely related to CO, SOM, EC, and NMC on the first and second canonical axes. Hence, a series of changes in canopy structure and soil factors following the ice storm appeared to have affected the composition and distribution of soil arthropod communities. Findings from the present study also indicated that arthropod communities could serve as indicators to characterize the ecosystems they inhabit, thus being particularly suitable for monitoring forest regeneration and successional dynamics following ice storms.

The Three Parallel River Region is an epicentre of Chinese biodiversity, which is reputed as one of the world’s 25 major “biodiversity hotspots”. However, few study has been done on the notorious mosquitoes in this area. We surveyed the mosquitoes in relation to latitude and elevation along the Lancang River (24°-30°N, 1,000-3,500 m asl). Adult mosquito samples were captured using UV light traps from July to September 2005 in the mountainous residential areas. A total of 76,458 adult mosquitoes were collected and identified as 36 species of 5 genera in 2 subfamilies. The results showed: (1) species richness gradually decreased with the increasing latitude but showed a single-peak curve pattern along the altitudinal gradient; (2) α diversity decreased first and then increased slightly along the increasing latitude, showing a wave-like curve along the altitudinal gradient; (3) β diversity (Cody index) was higher in the transitional climate zones, and the same pattern was found along the altitudinal gradient, which reflected the influence of geographical environment and climate on the species composition, fauna and diversity distribution pattern of mosquitoes; (4) Mosquito species were classified into three main ecological types by cluster analysis, namely Oriental fauna, Palaearctic fauna, and the transitional fauna between them; and (5) the result from canonical correspondence analysis indicated that precipitation is the key factor influencing spatial distribution pattern of mosquito diversity in the study area.

The investigation during 1994 ～ 1997 on natural enemies of coffee stem borer , Xylot rechus quardripes and Acalolepta cervinus , indicated that there exists high diversity of natural enemies in coffee ecosystem in Simao region , Yunnan Province. There are at least four hymenopterous predatory species (ants) belonging to Crematogaster ferrarii , C. rogenhof eri , Monomorium chinense and M. pharaonis , two hymenopterous parasitoid species belonging to Pristaulacus intermedius (Aulacidae) , Iphiaulax rufus , and two dermaptera predatory species belonging to Labidura riparia and Nesogaster sp. . Among them , C. ferrarii and C. rogenhoferi showed the highest predatism with nearly 50 % , Pristaulacus intermedius showed higher parasitism with 8 % and occured almost in all seasons , and L abidura riparia showed higher predatism with 10 % and could be found almost all the year round. Therefore , these four natural enemies species seemed to be the most important agent for biological control of coffee stem borers population. Furthermore , we suggested that chemical pesticide should be reduced and the ecosystem of coffee plant should be protected and improved , so that natural enemy could exert their function of biological control effectively.

Hedysarum laeve (Fabaceae) is an important legume for plant ecosystem restoration and reconstruction in Mu Us Sandland, Inner Mongolia. Fruit set is greatly enhanced when pollinators are available in the H. laeve system, since fruit set is stimulated less by spontaneous autogamy. This species is pollinated mainly by wild bees, but there is insufficient information to determine the overall effectiveness or importance of the pollinators. We investigated the composition of bee pollinator species of H. laeve and the pollination efficiency of the dominant ones. The species and numbers of pollinators of H. laeve were investigated in four 2 m×2 m plots in Mu Us Sandland during 2004–2006. We observed visitation frequency of the main pollinators and measured their pollen removal ratio from anthers after a single visit to virgin flowers, pollen deposition on stigmas by a single visit to virgin flowers, and the duration of each visit. The results showed that three bees Anthophora albifronella, Megachile maritima and Bombus sporsdicus were major pollinators, of which A. albifronella was dominant in number and visitation frequency. A. albifronella removed less pollen than M. maritima and B. sporsdicus, but the three bee species deposited similar amounts of pollen on stigmas. We suggest that A. albifronella was the most efficient pollinator for H. laeve according to comparison among the three bees of the amount of pollen removal, the pollen deposition on stigmas, and visitation frequency.

The B biotype of Bemisia tabaci, sometimes called a “super bug”, has been one of this species complex’s most harmful biotypes because of the tremendous damage it inflicts worldwide. Recently, competitive displacement of pre-existent biotypes and other herbivores by the B. tabaci B biotype has been observed in many regions worldwide. Based on literature review, the mechanisms responsible for competitive replacement by B. tabaci may include exploitation or interference competition, which involve niche competition, differential abilities in resource acquisition, asymmetric mating interactions, heat shock adaptation, pesticide susceptibility, and interactions between B. tabaci B biotype, host plants, and viruses. Moreover, the B biotype likely has unique endosymbionts, which may be important in enhancing its competitive ability. We also discuss related mechanisms involved with serious damage caused by the B. tabaci Q biotype.

Field work was done in Heshan city, Guangdong Province on seed dispersal of Rhodomyrtus tomentosa by frugivorous birds and ants. R. tomentosa is a very common pioneer species in the South China, and its pulp is rich in glucide and fat. Pycnonotus jocosus and P. sinensis were the birds that ate R. tomentosa fruits and dispersed the seeds in the study area, and the later was more than the former in number during the observation period. The seed number of this shrub in the feces of P. jocosus and P. sinensis caught in mist nets were 8.0±3.0 and 10.0 ±2.0, respectively. Two species of ants, Pheidologetion diversus and Paratrechina flavipes, were observed eating R. tomentosa pulp.Pheidologetion diversus and another ant species Pheidole meihuashanensis were observed carrying the seeds. The longest distances of movement by Pheidologetion diversus and Pheidole meihuashanensis were 4 m and 5 m, respectively, and the mean distances of dispersal by these agents were 1.1±0.09 m and 1.3±0.07 m, respectively. 657 ants were collected in the study area by pitfall trapping, comprising 394 Pheidologetion diversus (60.0%), 144 Paratrechina flavipes (21.9%), 53 Pheidole meihuashanensis (8.1%) and other species. The average number of stored seeds in a Pheidologetion diversus nest was 195.0±82.9, among which 73.2% were intact. And the average number of stored seeds in a Pheidole meihuashanensis nest was 28.8±11.4, all of which were intact. The seedlings of R. tomentosa could be found at canopy gaps, on bare land and at the forest edge. There were also many seedlings near ant's nests wherever sunlight was high.

To evaluate the potential role of an urban wetland park in conserving biodiversity during urbanization, we studied ground beetle (Carabidae) diversity using pitfall traps in five vegetation types, i.e., poplar, cypress, mixed forest, barberry scrub, and reed beds, within a newly-built urban wetland park, Cuihu Wetland Park in Beijing, for three years. A total of 441 individuals representing 30 species and 18 genera of carabid beetles were captured. Carabid species richness and abundance both sharply increased with park age. For each of the five vegetation types, approximately 25% of their carabid species (3-4 species) were unique and were not detected in other types. Poplar forest exhibited the highest abundance and richness of carabid species and showed the strongest increasing trend through time. Our results suggested a significant role of urban wetland parks in the conservation of carabid beetle diversity in the process of urbanization. In order to maximize their conservation value, they should be revegetated by a diversity of plants while using poplars as pioneers.

Hitherto , six families , 48 genera and 79 species of Acridoidea have been recorded in the tropical region of Xishuangbanna. Of them , 68 species accounting for 86. 1 % of the total species are oriental , including 22 endemic species. The other 11 species are widely distributed. As the destruction of the tropical forest , cultivation of crops and other plants of economical importance , habitats with tropical rainforest characters have been changing in this area. The fauna and the species diversity of Acridoidea are influenced. The number of species is gradually reducing. The ratio of the oriental species decreases and that of widely-distributed species increases. Some endemic species decline or even extinct because of the environmental change. The diversity analysis showed that species diversity index and evenness index of Acridoidea will significantly decrease from 1. 240 to 0. 761 and from o. 887 to 0. 585 respectively along the rainforest —bush —farmland —rubber trees habitats. Holy hills can maintain some characters of rainforest habitats , but its role in the conservation of grasshopper species is limited.

We studied the body size, development, longevity, fecundity and survivorship of Bemisia tabaci biotype B on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), collard (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), squash (Cucurbita pepo), eggplant (Solanum melongena), and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) at 27 ± 1℃, 75% RH and a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D) h in the laboratory. We found that the pupae size on cucumber and cotton was the largest whereas that on poinsettia was the smallest. The developmental periods from egg to adult varied from 17.3 days on cucumber to 22.0 days on poinsettia. Fecundity varied from 266.5 eggs on tomato to 112.9 eggs on poinsettia, while the average longevity of adult females on tomato, cucumber and eggplant was longer than that on the other plants. The total survivorship from egg to adult on cucumber, poinsettia, cotton, eggplant, collard, tomato and squash was 77.8%, 70.6%, 67.9%, 67.8%, 65.0%, 59.0%, and 55.6%, respectively. An overall comparison of performance on the seven plant species indicates that cucumber is the most suitable host plant for B. tabaci biotype B.

Pollination has been recognized to be an important ecological process to maintain and promote biodiversity on earth. The order Hymenoptera, especially the superfamily Apoidea, is one of the most abundant and diverse groups among natural pollinators. However, studies on the ecological functions of wild bee pollinators have been underappreciated in China. More professional taxonomists are urgently needed to sur-vey fauna, to provide accurate identifications and to do comprehensive studies. Our understanding of nesting biology or pollination biology is not comprehensive for most wild bees. On the other side, much more atten-tion should be paid to the associations between bees and plants for their application to various projects on pollination biology, biodiversity or conservation biology in the future. We review current research on the status of wild bees, and we anticipate further applications to practices in agriculture and forestry with infor-mation from taxonomy, nesting biology and pollination biology of wild bees.

In the fig-fig wasp reciprocal mutualism, understanding mechanisms of coexistence between pollinating wasps and non-pollinating wasps is an important and relevant topic. Niche partitioning has widely been considered as the most important mechanism in the coexistence of pollinating and non-pollinating wasps. In this study, we experimentally examined the diet of five species of non-pollinators and the relationship among fig wasps in Ficus racemosain Xishuangbanna, southern China, from Dec. 2006 to Jun. 2007. Platyneura testacea and P. mayri are gall-makers, but oviposit sequentially, utilizing different female flowers at different developmental stages; Apocryptasp., A. westwoodi and P. agraensis are parasitoids of P. testacea, P. mayri and Ceratosolen fusciceps respectively, presenting species-specific relationships with the hosted species. Species correlation coefficients differed greatly among seasons and conditions, suggesting that the use of correlation analysis to deduce or identify relationships between species in previous studies may be of limited value. Pollinators were the dominant species at our study sites. In these conditions, non-pollinating wasps exist at relatively low population density, and therefore may have a weak impact on the stability of the mutualism, potentially enabling the non-pollinating wasps coexist with the mutualism between figs and fig wasps.

Mutualism is one of the most important ecological interactions, with strong influences on almost all levels of biological systems. Their long-term persistence raises many challenging evolutionary questions, especially those involving high-level coevolution and coadaptation. Figs and their pollinating wasps are among the most tightly integrated mutualisms known, and provide a model system for developing and testing theories of coevolution. Initial studies suggested specific coevolution between them, described as the famous rule of one fig one wasp. However, more and more exceptions have been revealed by recent studies, and cryptic species in pollinating wasps and host switching were found common in some regions and within some Ficus groups, inducing debates on the levels of species specificity and coevolution. A broad-sense coevolution model to describe the relationship of the related groups of figs and their pollinating wasps was proposed recently. The diverse relationships between figs and their pollinating wasps indicated coexistence of both specific and diffuse coevolution in this mutualism system, producing different species-specificity level. However, which model is the dominant one in this system is still keeping open. The species specificity could be tight or loose in different regions and fig groups involved. Consequently, the frequencies and mechanisms of breakdowns of the one-to-one rule within different fig groups as well as in different regions are essential for the understanding of the relative importance of the competing finer-scale cospeciation or broad-sense coevolution models.

Variable insect behaviors may result in different flower visiting frequencies, which may result in diverse impacts on plant pollination. Although flies, hoverflies, and Italian bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) were the most common visitors of Chimonanthus praecox, these insect groups had disparate visiting behaviors. Flies traveled quickly, and crawled or jumped between flowers. Italian bees also flew quickly or occasionally crawled between flowers. In contrast, hoverflies generally spent a majority of time foraging on a given flower. Based on the average foraging time and inter-floral flight time, one Italian bee could visit 4.57 flowers per minute, whereas individual bees and hoverflies could visit 2.65 and 0.53 flowers on average, respectively. After incorporating the total number of individuals for each insect group, we extrapolated the visiting rates of Italian bees, flies and hoverflies as 498.19, 1,089.74 and 99.78 flowers per minute, respectively. Flies and Italian bees had higher pollination effectiveness (number of pollinated flowers by the same number of visitors in a given time interval under the same condition), with estimates of 93% and 100% (n = 30), respectively, while only 13% (n = 30) for hoverflies. If we consider the pollen load ability and pollination effectiveness for Italian bees and flies, visiting rate may be the main limiting factor for their potential in pollinating flowers. Thus following these conclusions, flies are the major pollinators of C. praecox, followed by Italian bees (pollination role was limited by their low number) and hoverflies (limited by their foraging and hovering behaviors and lower pollination effectiveness).